For $30, I feel like I got more than what's in most $60 games. Great voice-acting that at times is touching; great graphics; it's fun, and plenty of content. A little short but this is a GREAT Ratchet and Clank game. Just fantastic.
evanheaven1 No, he actually does. It was because there were different designers working on "Nexus" than people from "Crack in Time". + Nexus is _lighter_ so his Fur was made to be a little lighter too.
Hell I'm gonna say it right now, I prefer that design over the ones from both PS4 game and the upcoming PS5 game. I just find the art style behind it to be quite stylish. It has a real comic book vibe and looks shiny and pasty almost as if you're playing with action figures.
now dont get me wrong, i enjoyed this game. im a HUGE ratchet and clank fan, but there were a couple things in this game that bothered me. i feel like graphically, this game was a step back. i enjoyed the environments in a crack in time/ tools of destruction much more. i also feel like the character models took a step back also. i also feel like the camera movement and the character movement just wasnt as fluent in this game than in the previous ones. and the beginning was extremely slow (which kind of lowers replayability) i dont know if anyone else agrees, but those are my opinions. but none the less, it was an overall good game.
PENGUlN124 The graphics were just as good, but the art design was more on the level on the originals, instead of the amazing art design we got from the Future games.
I always thought this was a nice little epilogue to the future series, but now I know that this years movie is coming with a REBOOT of the first ratchet game I realised something. This game was the finale. It wasn't just an epilogue to a crack in time, it was a love letter to every game that came before it. References to all the games in the future series, references to secret agent clank, the return of thugs for less from going commando, and even the same helicopter boss fight from that game. This was the last ratchet and clank game from that time line. Now that I know this it makes me super sad to see such a great story come to an end. We can only hope the movie and the reboot re-tell the best stories from the series on an epic scale. I want to see Dr nefarious on the big screen, and of course, finally get ratchet back home to his family.
GMMReviews This definitely wasn't MEANT to be the finale. It might be depending on how the movie and its game do, but the cliffhanger at the end and Ratchet's unresolved past show that they clearly wanted to make a sequel. I hope they still will.
+GMMReviews You've just thrown me into a state of depression... This story has been part of my growing up for 12 years and, you know what, you're right. It's technically over. I completed Nexus as I turned 18, so it's rather fitting to end my childhood story there. A Crack In Time is gonna remain the greatest game experience ever for me. A masterpiece in its own right.
+GMMReviews I don't think they would just make it 5 hours long though, I think they'll go back to making games like a crack in time after they release the movie and the movie-game.
Wow. You managed to spoil the ENTIRE GAME in the review! You showed every weapon, every level, the final boss, many plot twists. Boy am I glad I finished the game before watching this!
Yeah I'm really happy to see Insomniac go back to form with Into The Nexus. I've been a fan of R&C since 2002, and I've played every single one. Thought FFA and All 4 One were alright, but this is the original formula, and that's awesome. Thumbs up for more Ratchets with the traditional style of gameplay!
A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of ink, paper, parchment, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. A set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book, or e-book. Books may also refer to works of literature, or a main division of such a work. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals or newspapers. The body of all written works including books is literature. In novels and sometimes other types of books (for example, biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, and so on). An avid reader of books is a bibliophile or colloquially, bookworm. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore. Books can also be borrowed from libraries. Google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 unique titles had been published.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History of books 2.1 Antiquity 2.1.1 Tablet 2.1.2 Scroll 2.1.3 Codex 2.2 Middle Ages 2.2.1 Manuscripts 2.2.2 Arab printing techniques 2.2.3 Wood block printing 2.2.4 Movable type and incunabula 2.3 Modern world 3 Book manufacture in modern times 3.1 Current processes 3.2 Finishing 4 Digital printing 4.1 E-book 5 Information explosion 6 Book design 7 Sizes 8 Types 8.1 By content 8.1.1 Fiction 8.1.2 Non-fiction 8.1.3 Other types 8.2 By physical format 9 Libraries 10 Identification and classification 10.1 Classification systems 11 Uses 12 Paper and conservation 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Etymology The word comes from Old English "bōc" which (itself) comes from the Germanic root "*bōk-", cognate to beech.[2] Similarly, in Slavic languages (for example, Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian) "буква" (bukva-"letter") is cognate with "beech". In Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, another Slavic languages, the words "букварь" (bukvar') and "буквар" (bukvar), respectively, refer specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood.[3] Similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood". History of books Main article: History of books Antiquity Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400-2200 BC When writing systems were invented/created in ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon-stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets-was used for writing.The study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt . The Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from each other (scriptura continua) and there was no punctuation. Texts were written from right to left, left to right, and even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for this type of writing is 'boustrophedon,' which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields.[citation needed] Tablet A tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus. Clay tablets were just what they sound like: flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a ( possible dampened) stylus. They were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age. Wax tablets were wooden planks covered in a thick enough coating of wax to record the impressions of a stylus. They were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting, and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman pugillares) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex).[4] The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.[5] Scroll Main article: Scroll Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart. Papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool, was used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First Dynasty, although the first evidence is from the account books of King Nefertiti Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC).[6] Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime and other materials were also used.[7] According to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (biblion) and book (biblos) come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece.[8] From Greek we also derive the word tome (Greek: τόμος), which originally meant a slice or piece and from there began to denote "a roll of papyrus". Tomus was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as volumen (see also below the explanation by Isidore of Seville). Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese, Hebrew, and Macadonian cultures. The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia. Codex A Chinese bamboo book meets the modern definition of Codex Main article: Codex In the 5th century, Isidore of Seville explained the then-current relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (codex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches." Modern usage differs. A codex (in modern usage) is the first information repository that modern people would recognize as a "book": leaves of uniform size bound in some manner along one edge, and typically held between two covers made of some more robust material. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the first century, where he praises its compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use.[9] This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable, searchable, and easy to conceal. A book is much easier to read, to find a page that you want, and to flip through. A scroll is more awkward to use. The Christian authors may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls. In addition, some metal books were made, that required smaller pages of metal, instead of an impossibly long, unbending scroll of metal. A book can also be easily stored in more compact places, or side by side in a tight library or shelf space. Middle Ages Manuscripts Main article: Manuscript Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals. The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. saw the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material. Monasteries carried on the Latin writing tradition in the Western Roman Empire. Cassiodorus, in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts.[10] St. Benedict of Nursia, in his Rule of Saint Benedict (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading.[11] The Rule of Saint Benedict (Ch. XLVIII), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the Middle Ages and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged. Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books, medium-sized perhaps a few hundred. By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in Avignon and Paris library of the Sorbonne held only around 2,000 volumes.[12] Burgundian author and scribe Jean Miélot, from his Miracles de Notre Dame, 15th century. The scriptorium of the monastery was usually located over the chapter house. Artificial light was forbidden for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes: Calligraphers, who dealt in fine book production Copyists, who dealt with basic production and correspondence Correctors, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced Illuminators, who painted illustrations Rubricators, who painted in the red letters The bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by the scribe, who usually left blank areas for illustration and rubrication. Finally, the book was bound by the bookbinder.[13] Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy. Different types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from gall nuts and iron vitriol. This gave writing a brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and different colors were used for illumination. For very luxurious manuscripts the whole parchment was colored purple, and the text was written on it with gold or silver (for example, Codex Argenteus).[14] Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However, the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.[15] The first books used parchment or vellum (calfskin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. Because dried parchment tends to assume the form it had before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later Middle Ages, when public libraries appeared, up to the 18th century, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft. These chained books are called libri catenati. At first, books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular stationers guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.[16] Judaism has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present. According to Jewish tradition, the Torah scroll placed in a synagogue must be written by hand on parchment and a printed book would not do, though the congregation may use printed prayer books and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the synagogue. A sofer "scribe" is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community. Arab printing techniques This section may contain inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. Please help improve this article by checking for inaccuracies. (help, talk, get involved!) (September 2010) Arabs also produced and bound books in the Islamic Golden Age (mid 8th century to 1258), developing advanced techniques in Islamic calligraphy, miniatures and bookbinding. A number of cities in the medieval Islamic world had book production centers and book markets. Marrakesh, Morocco, had a street named Kutubiyyin or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops in the 12th century;[citation needed] the famous Koutoubia Mosque is named so because of its location in this street. The medieval Muslim world also used a method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities known as check reading, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript. In the check reading method, only "authors could authorize copies, and this was done in public sessions in which the copyist read the copy aloud in the presence of the author, who then certified it as accurate."[17] With this check-reading system, "an author might produce a dozen or more copies from a single reading," and with two or more readings, "more than one hundred copies of a single book could easily be produced."[18] Wood block printing In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the Han dynasty (before 220 AD), as a method of printing on textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is The Diamond Sutra (868 AD). The method (called Woodcut when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as well as playing-cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. The monks or people who wrote them were paid highly. Movable type and incunabula A 15th-century Incunable. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps. Main articles: Movable type and Incunable "Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque nationale de France. The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available. Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."[19] Modern world Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.[citation needed] Monotype and linotype typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year. Book manufacture in modern times Main article: Bookbinding See also: Publishing The spine of the book is an important aspect in book design, especially in the cover design. When the books are stacked up or stored in a shelf, the details on the spine is the only visible surface that contains the information about the book. In stores, it is the details on the spine that attract buyers' attention first. The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th century. While there was more mechanization, a book printer in 1900 had much in common with Gutenberg. Gutenberg's invention was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by letterpress to create multiple copies. Modern paper books are printed on papers designed specifically for printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off-white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimise the show-through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for case-bound books. Different paper qualities are used depending on the type of book: Machine finished coated papers, woodfree uncoated papers, coated fine papers and special fine papers are common paper grades. Today, the majority of books are printed by offset lithography. When a book is printed the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages will be in the correct sequence. Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The sizes of books are usually specified as "trim size": the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and trimmed. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and have come to dominate the industry. British conventions in this regard prevail throughout the English-speaking world, except for the USA. The European book manufacturing industry works to a completely different set of standards. Current processes Book covers Some books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. fewer copies) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print more copies in a shorter time. As the production line circulates, a complete "book" is collected together in one stack, next to another, and another. A web press carries out the folding itself, delivering bundles of signatures (sections) ready to go into the gathering line. Notice that when the book is being printed it is being printed one (or two) signatures at a time, not one complete book at a time. Excess numbers are printed to make up for any spoilage due to "make-readies" or test pages to assure final print quality. A make-ready is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper. After the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the bindery. In the middle of last century there were still many trade binders - stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in binding alone. At that time, because of the dominance of letterpress printing, typesetting and printing took place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book's worth of type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so printing would be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be moved. Now, because of increasing computerization of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa). If the book is a hardback its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a paperback. Unsewn binding, is now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held together by "Smyth sewing" using needles, "McCain sewing", using drilled holes often used in schoolbook binding, or "notch binding", where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the spine of each signature. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks. Finishing Book pages "Making cases" happens off-line and prior to the book's arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case-making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth (about 5/8" all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case-making the stack of cases will go to the foil stamping area for adding decorations and type. Digital printing Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using toner rather than ink. Each book is printed in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. One might think of a web press as printing quantities over 2000, quantities from 250 to 2000 being printed on sheet-fed presses, and digital presses doing quantities below 250. These numbers are of course only approximate and will vary from supplier to supplier, and from book to book depending on its characteristics. Digital printing has opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received from a customer. E-book Main article: e-book The term e-book is a contraction of "electronic book"; it refers to a book-length publication in digital form.[20] An e-book is usually made available through the internet, but also on CD-ROM and other forms. E-Books may be read either via a computer or by means of a portable book display device known as an e-book reader, such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble Nook or the Amazon Kindle. These devices attempt to mimic the experience of reading a print book. Information explosion Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of electronic publishing and the internet means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a digital library, on CD-ROM, or in the form of e-books. An on-line book is an e-book that is available online through the internet. Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing.[21] There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. This effort is spearheaded by Project Gutenberg combined with Distributed Proofreaders. There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as POD or "print on demand", which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print. Book design Main article: Book design Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components of a book into a coherent whole. In the words of Jan Tschichold, book design "though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed over centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought back to life and applied." Richard Hendel describes book design as "an arcane subject" and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means. Sizes Main article: Book size Real-size facsimile of Codex Gigas The world's largest book The size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame, so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed. The most common book sizes are: Quarto (4to): the sheet of paper is folded twice, forming four leaves (eight pages) approximately 11-13 inches (ca 30 cm) tall Octavo (8vo): the most common size for current hardcover books. The sheet is folded three times into eight leaves (16 pages) up to 9 ¾" (ca 23 cm) tall. DuoDecimo (12mo): a size between 8vo and 16mo, up to 7 ¾" (ca 18 cm) tall Sextodecimo (16mo): the sheet is folded four times, forming 16 leaves (32 pages) up to 6 ¾" (ca 15 cm) tall Sizes smaller than 16mo are: 24mo: up to 5 ¾" (ca 13 cm) tall. 32mo: up to 5" (ca 12 cm) tall. 48mo: up to 4" (ca 10 cm) tall. 64mo: up to 3" (ca 8 cm) tall. Small books can be called booklets. Sizes larger than quarto are: Folio: up to 15" (ca 38 cm) tall. Elephant Folio: up to 23" (ca 58 cm) tall. Atlas Folio: up to 25" (ca 63 cm) tall. Double Elephant Folio: up to 50" (ca 127 cm) tall. The largest extant medieval manuscript in the world is Codex Gigas 92 × 50 × 22 cm. The world's largest book made of stone is in Kuthodaw Pagoda (Burma). The longest book title in the world is 670 words long[citation needed]. Types By content Novels in a Polish bookstore A common separation by content are fiction and non-fiction books. This simple separation can be found in most collections, libraries, and bookstores. Fiction Many of the books published today are fiction, meaning that they are in-part or completely untrue. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for entertainment. An increase in global literacy and print technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical social commentary. Most fiction is additionally categorized by genre. The novel is the most common form of fiction book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot, setting, themes and characters. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing markets.[22] A novella is a term sometimes used for fiction prose typically between 17,500 and 40,000 words, and a novelette between 7,500 and 17,500. A Short story may be any length up to 10,000 words, but these word lengths vary. Comic books or graphic novels are books in which the story is illustrated. The characters and narrators use speech or thought bubbles to express verbal language. Non-fiction A page from a dictionary In a library, a reference book is a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. An almanac is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics. An encyclopedia is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing words, their etymology, meanings, and other information is called a dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas. A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a handbook. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an index, such as Engineering Index, or abstracts such as chemical abstracts and biological abstracts. An atlas Books with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement books. Students typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for study purposes. Elementary school pupils often use workbooks, which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or homework. In US higher education, it is common for a student to take an exam using a blue book. A page from a notebook used as hand written diary There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These books are rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank papers to be written in by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use lab notebooks to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out. A Telephone Directory, with business and residence listings. Address books, phone books, and calendar/appointment books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal contact information. Books for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called logbooks or simply logs. A similar book for writing the owner's daily private personal events, information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal. Businesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping. Other types There are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. Albums are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of photographs, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example is stamp albums, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of postage stamps. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar smolder. Picture books are books for children with little text and pictures on every page. Hymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other devoted followers or clergy. By physical format Hardcover books Paperback books Hardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of spiral-bound books include: teachers' manuals and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku). Publishing is a process for producing pre-printed books, magazines, and newspapers for the reader/user to buy. Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale. Libraries Main article: Library Celsus Library was built in 135 AD and could house around 12,000 scrolls. Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) first appeared in classical Greece. In ancient world the maintaining of a library was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference from a modern public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Mediterranean region (for example, Library of Alexandria).[23] Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft. The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns.[24] The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built in their homes. In the United States the Boston Public Library 1852 Report of the Trustees established the justification for the public library as a tax-supported institution intended to extend educational opportunity and provide for general culture.[25] The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich. In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made. When rows of books are lined on a book holder, bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting. Identification and classification During the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). ISBN with barcode Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 0-9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit. Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However, many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs. A large or public collection requires a catalogue. Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside. Institutional or national standards, such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software. Books on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers visible on the spines One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. Another widely known system is the Library of Congress Classification system. Both systems are biased towards subjects which were well represented in US libraries when they were developed, and hence have problems handling new subjects, such as computing, or subjects relating to other cultures.[citation needed] Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like online general-interest book databases. Metadata about a book may include its ISBN or other classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author, editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, and the language of the text. Classification systems Bliss bibliographic classification (BC) Chinese Library Classification (CLC) Colon Classification Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Harvard-Yenching Classification Library of Congress Classification (LCC) New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) Uses Aside from the primary purpose of reading them, books are also used for other ends: A book can be an artistic artifact, a piece of art; this is sometimes known as an artists' book. A book may be evaluated by a reader or professional writer to create a book review. A book may be read by a group of people to use as a spark for social or academic discussion, as in a book club. A book may be studied by students as the subject of a writing and analysis exercise in the form of a book report. Books are sometimes used for their exterior appearance to decorate a room, such as a study. Paper and conservation Main articles: Paper#Paper stability and Conservation-restoration Halfbound book with leather and marbled paper. Paper was first made in China as early as 200 BC, and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp. papermaking in Europe began in the 11th century, although vellum was also common there as page material up until the beginning of 16th century, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market. Paper made from wood pulp became popular in the early 20th century, because it was cheaper than linen or abaca cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations, and enabled the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution. However pulp paper contained acid, that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections. Stability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material.[26] Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The HVAC system should be up to date and functioning efficiently. Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore, care should be given to the collections by implementing light control. General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including pest control. In addition to these helpful solutions, a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through "acts of god" therefore an emergency management plan should be in place. See also Main article: Outline of books Artist's book Audiobook
RelentlessVitality28 After the PS4 Remake was revealed, Insomniac Games said that they won't do any Remake of PS3 Title cuz they are made on the same engine that PS4 (Remake had just a little upgraded version). All through, they said nothing about Remakes of _Ratchet and Clank 2 & 3_ , which were mentioned later on Twitter to be Remade (but it wasn't confirmed)
Really hoping they continue the story in the next game instead of something like All 4 One. My god man can you imagine how great a major Ratchet and Clank game on the PS4 would look like? Getting goose bumps just thinking about it
I hope they make it a huuuuge game if they decide to make a new series for the PS4. annnd I hope Nefarious is done with for now. He's a cool villian and all but used too much if you ask me
John Desper Well maybe I'm not a PC autist who cares about a few frames, but it seemed pretty consistent to me, with the exception of the few times a LOT of things were happening and exploding on screen simultaneously.
I want to buy all of the Ratchet and Clank games for PS2, PS3 and hopefully PS4. Every game ive played as brought me many late nights of fun and sore blood shot eyes. So guys...whats your favorite? Mines is Going Commando.
My favorite is Crack in Time. I think it had the best puzzles for Clank and I loved exploring all the mini worlds as Rachet. Also really good story in that. I do thoroughly enjoy Up your Arsenal too :) Funny thing is you can get every Rachet game excluding the spinoffs not made by Insomniac on the PS3 right now!!Gordon Freeman the Lombax of Space and Hedgehogs and THE TRUE HIGH KING OF SKYRIM AND PANDAS
my most favorite was up your arsenal, the worst one was size matter. i haven't played all the ps3 R&C games as i only got quest for booty for free, but if i do i could call from the future series that crack in time was my most favorite and all 4 one is the worst, kinda surprised that into the nexus visually could match Knack graphics.
my favourite ratchet and clank game so far, it managed to fuse the different elements that both the original trilogy and the future trilogy had, making every other game feel like it was only part of a puzzle, while nexus makes it feel like a complete and refreshing take on the series managing to do what the original trilogy did that the future saga removed, like over expanded levels, interesting mechanics and new takes on already existing ones, like the magboots as an example or the new not overwhelming at all clank sections, which took the tediousness of previous clank sections in the series, but maintaing the feel of a clank section. the only gripe i have about the game is it's short length, which is fixed by the game's satisfying replayability value which doesn't make the game feel too tedious and long to 100%.
The Future Series Of rachet and clank is the best of all and this was a good send off and fun game. Also I highly recommend the ps4 version of rachet and clank.
We need David back for the music.Even the little things like menu sound effects,box brraking,explosive boxes,swingshots,weapon selection,and weapon upgrading sound..."different".Not the good different.
@@uchihakaneki6928 None of them were new games, just remasters/remakes. Now you can finally say how far we've come with Crash Bandicoot 4 and the upcoming release of Ratchet and Clank Rift Apart which will be the first actual new full length Ratchet game since like A Crack in Time.
Do you finish the game fast ? I just finished crank in time and that game was to shooort if you compare to the old ones, but still i loved all the games
dam casul i also aggree that ratchet and clank a crack in time was good one i started to play that game it was hard for me to stop cause i just wanted to keep on going i think i beat that game in like 4 days lol
Going Commando is the best. The scheme of colors (mostly blue and green) in it is far better than 3's orange, there is not "padding", there is "padding" in 3 with the missions from the Galactic Rangers, Going Commando has more minigames, Going Commando has better music. A Crack In Time has a story that does make sense in the franchise, bad music, "takes itself too seriously".
What is it with cliffhangers being bad endings? It only means there's more to come. So you say TOD and QBF gets minus points for cliffhangers? Get out of here.
I was actually Unsatisfied with _Into the Nexus_ Yes, we had many things back [not like CiT didn't have them], but it was very, very Short. I mean ~ comparing even to the PS2 R&C games, Nexus was very small.
Naughty Dog have recently stated that they currently only plan on creating narrative driven games, so sadly that doesn't look good for Jak and Daxter. Not to mention they tried to reboot the series before TLOU but they felt it strode to far away from what made J&D, well, Jak and Daxter.
'A Crack in Time' and 'Into the Nexus' are both on sale right now for £5 each and i always wanted to play these two (only played the HD trilogy), i guess it's time to start up my PS3 again
unfortunately 200PoundsOfBeauty , their right. its been over a month and the price have already been cut in half. it would have made more sense to make it a PS4 exclusive.
In Australia, and I'm guessing Europe it's just called :Nexus Nexus on the disc and on the game menu. Maybe it was either the Australian or European reviewers who did this, I have no idea.
I loved Up Your Arsenal and Tools of Destruction I though was the best one of the series, I never played Crack in Time though so does this take place after all that?
Ryu Nishiyama those, crash and spyro, were fun games but the gameplay in the ratchet or jak games were superior. but more people grew up with crash and spyro so a a lot want those back
So heres a question for all the fans of the series. Haven't played RnC for a long time, gonna get back to it now that so many are on the PS3, thing is for now i've only got enough money for a single purchase, so The original trilogy? Tools of destruction? A crack in time? Into the nexus? All 4 one? Qforce? Can't decide atm and don't know which ones the best to pick so
Ratchet & Clank is my all time child hood favourite on Playstation 2. Sadly it's not such a big hit anymore, due to games like Call Of Duty and Battlefield.
I've heard A4O was a big hit (TOD-ACIT were big too). The series must be big enough to have a movie in 2015 and an app coming to IOS and Andriod (Not confirmed when it will be released)..
Currently playing this for the first time now, just hope they continue ratchet and clank and ps4 and return it to 60fps? Maybe even cell shaded again? Cause crack in time looked incredible!
I bought this game on launch day and was the first(maybe only) person to buy it from that particular gamestop. Unfortunately, I'm not going to play it just yet. I'm still playing the very first R&C on the PS3 collection since I missed out on the original PS2 trilogy.
I just didn't liked the not auto--lock when sooting... in the other games (in third person) when you soot you have a auto-lock when near an enemie. here you have to "switch" to a semi-first person and I never liked that :/
This game looks so good and it's on sale for 19.99 at gamestop. It seems like a sweet deal if you ask me. But I never played any of the other Ratchet and Clank games, do I don't know if i'd like it, but it does look awesome. :)
last ratchet and clank game i played was gladiator, then from what little knowledge i have i heard that it went downhill. i really miss those playstation exclusives i played as a kid like ratchet and clank, kingdom hearts and others, now im just pc all the way
The new trilogy coming to PS4 is going to be so epic. I just wish they keep the ratchet and clank feel but also add in multiplayer as well look at R&C3 and R&C deadlock all their online were so much fun. Can't wait to see Ratchet and Clank on PS4 especially can't wait to see what they do with the touch pad on the PS4 controller. So epic!
I loved this game immensly! though there were bad parts about it: the weapons turned friggin pure gold!, i did not like that at all. Beside that i could say the story could be longer if the nether boss grabbed neftin into the netherverse with him. That way you could see more vendra side and add a deeper story plot to it
Chowderhead666 I know that, he said it's like the games never change each entry and that's not true as Insomniac have played around with the formula for the last three games (All4One, Full Frontal Assault/Q-Force, Into The Nexus).
This game couldn't of been released at a worse time along with Beyond two Souls as i'm saving my money for next gen like lots of other gamers out there
This was hands down my favorite Ratchet and Clank game. Yes, even better than Ratchet and Clank 3. I just can't help but gush by how much freedom of movement they provide to rain down destruction on enemies. If they expanded the scope and content of this game in a sequel, it would easily be a candidate for game of the year.
For $30, I feel like I got more than what's in most $60 games. Great voice-acting that at times is touching; great graphics; it's fun, and plenty of content. A little short but this is a GREAT Ratchet and Clank game. Just fantastic.
5 years later.. where Ratchet And Clank are😭
@@orishevach his back
@@faresfares-ultra 🥰🥰🥰
Now in 2020, for 10$ its basically free real-estate
@@armtc now it went up to $80+
Is it just me or does ratchet look way better in a crack in time
evanheaven1
No, he actually does.
It was because there were different designers working on "Nexus" than people from "Crack in Time".
+ Nexus is _lighter_ so his Fur was made to be a little lighter too.
Yea i prefer his buff look, now he just looks skinny
Hell I'm gonna say it right now, I prefer that design over the ones from both PS4 game and the upcoming PS5 game. I just find the art style behind it to be quite stylish. It has a real comic book vibe and looks shiny and pasty almost as if you're playing with action figures.
no
Mr. Zurkon does not need bolts, his currency is pain
Little Zurkon does not need bolts, he is given an allowance. An allowance of carnage.
@@ReakYTP Mr Zurkon does not need Nanotech to survive, Mr Zurkon lives in Fear.
now dont get me wrong, i enjoyed this game. im a HUGE ratchet and clank fan, but there were a couple things in this game that bothered me.
i feel like graphically, this game was a step back. i enjoyed the environments in a crack in time/ tools of destruction much more. i also feel like the character models took a step back also.
i also feel like the camera movement and the character movement just wasnt as fluent in this game than in the previous ones.
and the beginning was extremely slow (which kind of lowers replayability)
i dont know if anyone else agrees, but those are my opinions. but none the less, it was an overall good game.
PENGUlN124 The graphics were just as good, but the art design was more on the level on the originals, instead of the amazing art design we got from the Future games.
+PENGUlN124 The FPS was actually halved to 30fps.
Slow start? Its probably the best intro of all the saga stf
@@TripleZetta bro... this was nearly a decade ago
@@PENGUlN124 So?
I always thought this was a nice little epilogue to the future series, but now I know that this years movie is coming with a REBOOT of the first ratchet game I realised something. This game was the finale. It wasn't just an epilogue to a crack in time, it was a love letter to every game that came before it. References to all the games in the future series, references to secret agent clank, the return of thugs for less from going commando, and even the same helicopter boss fight from that game. This was the last ratchet and clank game from that time line. Now that I know this it makes me super sad to see such a great story come to an end. We can only hope the movie and the reboot re-tell the best stories from the series on an epic scale. I want to see Dr nefarious on the big screen, and of course, finally get ratchet back home to his family.
GMMReviews This definitely wasn't MEANT to be the finale. It might be depending on how the movie and its game do, but the cliffhanger at the end and Ratchet's unresolved past show that they clearly wanted to make a sequel. I hope they still will.
+GMMReviews You've just thrown me into a state of depression... This story has been part of my growing up for 12 years and, you know what, you're right. It's technically over. I completed Nexus as I turned 18, so it's rather fitting to end my childhood story there. A Crack In Time is gonna remain the greatest game experience ever for me. A masterpiece in its own right.
+GMMReviews I don't think they would just make it 5 hours long though, I think they'll go back to making games like a crack in time after they release the movie and the movie-game.
I see this game as the xmen days of future past of this franchise saying goodbye to the old and welcoming the new
:')
ratchet and clank 2 and 3 are still the best !:D
Wow. You managed to spoil the ENTIRE GAME in the review! You showed every weapon, every level, the final boss, many plot twists. Boy am I glad I finished the game before watching this!
I am glad I read this comment before starting the review. I am halfway through currently so thank you!
Yeah I'm really happy to see Insomniac go back to form with Into The Nexus. I've been a fan of R&C since 2002, and I've played every single one. Thought FFA and All 4 One were alright, but this is the original formula, and that's awesome. Thumbs up for more Ratchets with the traditional style of gameplay!
A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of ink, paper, parchment, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. A set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book, or e-book.
Books may also refer to works of literature, or a main division of such a work. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals or newspapers. The body of all written works including books is literature. In novels and sometimes other types of books (for example, biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, and so on). An avid reader of books is a bibliophile or colloquially, bookworm.
A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore. Books can also be borrowed from libraries. Google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 unique titles had been published.[1]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History of books
2.1 Antiquity
2.1.1 Tablet
2.1.2 Scroll
2.1.3 Codex
2.2 Middle Ages
2.2.1 Manuscripts
2.2.2 Arab printing techniques
2.2.3 Wood block printing
2.2.4 Movable type and incunabula
2.3 Modern world
3 Book manufacture in modern times
3.1 Current processes
3.2 Finishing
4 Digital printing
4.1 E-book
5 Information explosion
6 Book design
7 Sizes
8 Types
8.1 By content
8.1.1 Fiction
8.1.2 Non-fiction
8.1.3 Other types
8.2 By physical format
9 Libraries
10 Identification and classification
10.1 Classification systems
11 Uses
12 Paper and conservation
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
Etymology
The word comes from Old English "bōc" which (itself) comes from the Germanic root "*bōk-", cognate to beech.[2] Similarly, in Slavic languages (for example, Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian) "буква" (bukva-"letter") is cognate with "beech". In Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, another Slavic languages, the words "букварь" (bukvar') and "буквар" (bukvar), respectively, refer specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood.[3] Similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood".
History of books
Main article: History of books
Antiquity
Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400-2200 BC
When writing systems were invented/created in ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon-stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets-was used for writing.The study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt . The Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from each other (scriptura continua) and there was no punctuation. Texts were written from right to left, left to right, and even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for this type of writing is 'boustrophedon,' which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields.[citation needed]
Tablet
A tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus.
Clay tablets were just what they sound like: flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a ( possible dampened) stylus. They were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age.
Wax tablets were wooden planks covered in a thick enough coating of wax to record the impressions of a stylus. They were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting, and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman pugillares) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex).[4] The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.[5]
Scroll
Main article: Scroll
Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart.
Papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool, was used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First Dynasty, although the first evidence is from the account books of King Nefertiti Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC).[6] Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime and other materials were also used.[7]
According to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (biblion) and book (biblos) come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece.[8] From Greek we also derive the word tome (Greek: τόμος), which originally meant a slice or piece and from there began to denote "a roll of papyrus". Tomus was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as volumen (see also below the explanation by Isidore of Seville).
Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese, Hebrew, and Macadonian cultures. The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia.
Codex
A Chinese bamboo book meets the modern definition of Codex
Main article: Codex
In the 5th century, Isidore of Seville explained the then-current relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (codex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches." Modern usage differs.
A codex (in modern usage) is the first information repository that modern people would recognize as a "book": leaves of uniform size bound in some manner along one edge, and typically held between two covers made of some more robust material. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the first century, where he praises its compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use.[9] This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable, searchable, and easy to conceal. A book is much easier to read, to find a page that you want, and to flip through. A scroll is more awkward to use. The Christian authors may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls. In addition, some metal books were made, that required smaller pages of metal, instead of an impossibly long, unbending scroll of metal. A book can also be easily stored in more compact places, or side by side in a tight library or shelf space.
Middle Ages
Manuscripts
Main article: Manuscript
Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals.
The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. saw the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material.
Monasteries carried on the Latin writing tradition in the Western Roman Empire. Cassiodorus, in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts.[10] St. Benedict of Nursia, in his Rule of Saint Benedict (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading.[11] The Rule of Saint Benedict (Ch. XLVIII), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the Middle Ages and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.
Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books, medium-sized perhaps a few hundred. By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in Avignon and Paris library of the Sorbonne held only around 2,000 volumes.[12]
Burgundian author and scribe Jean Miélot, from his Miracles de Notre Dame, 15th century.
The scriptorium of the monastery was usually located over the chapter house. Artificial light was forbidden for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes:
Calligraphers, who dealt in fine book production
Copyists, who dealt with basic production and correspondence
Correctors, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced
Illuminators, who painted illustrations
Rubricators, who painted in the red letters
The bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by the scribe, who usually left blank areas for illustration and rubrication. Finally, the book was bound by the bookbinder.[13]
Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy.
Different types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from gall nuts and iron vitriol. This gave writing a brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and different colors were used for illumination. For very luxurious manuscripts the whole parchment was colored purple, and the text was written on it with gold or silver (for example, Codex Argenteus).[14]
Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However, the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.[15]
The first books used parchment or vellum (calfskin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. Because dried parchment tends to assume the form it had before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later Middle Ages, when public libraries appeared, up to the 18th century, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft. These chained books are called libri catenati.
At first, books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular stationers guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.[16]
Judaism has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present. According to Jewish tradition, the Torah scroll placed in a synagogue must be written by hand on parchment and a printed book would not do, though the congregation may use printed prayer books and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the synagogue. A sofer "scribe" is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community.
Arab printing techniques
This section may contain inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. Please help improve this article by checking for inaccuracies. (help, talk, get involved!) (September 2010)
Arabs also produced and bound books in the Islamic Golden Age (mid 8th century to 1258), developing advanced techniques in Islamic calligraphy, miniatures and bookbinding. A number of cities in the medieval Islamic world had book production centers and book markets. Marrakesh, Morocco, had a street named Kutubiyyin or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops in the 12th century;[citation needed] the famous Koutoubia Mosque is named so because of its location in this street.
The medieval Muslim world also used a method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities known as check reading, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript. In the check reading method, only "authors could authorize copies, and this was done in public sessions in which the copyist read the copy aloud in the presence of the author, who then certified it as accurate."[17] With this check-reading system, "an author might produce a dozen or more copies from a single reading," and with two or more readings, "more than one hundred copies of a single book could easily be produced."[18]
Wood block printing
In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the Han dynasty (before 220 AD), as a method of printing on textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is The Diamond Sutra (868 AD).
The method (called Woodcut when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as well as playing-cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. The monks or people who wrote them were paid highly.
Movable type and incunabula
A 15th-century Incunable. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps.
Main articles: Movable type and Incunable
"Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque nationale de France.
The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available.
Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."[19]
Modern world
Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.[citation needed]
Monotype and linotype typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once.
The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.
Book manufacture in modern times
Main article: Bookbinding
See also: Publishing
The spine of the book is an important aspect in book design, especially in the cover design. When the books are stacked up or stored in a shelf, the details on the spine is the only visible surface that contains the information about the book. In stores, it is the details on the spine that attract buyers' attention first.
The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th century. While there was more mechanization, a book printer in 1900 had much in common with Gutenberg.
Gutenberg's invention was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by letterpress to create multiple copies.
Modern paper books are printed on papers designed specifically for printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off-white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimise the show-through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for case-bound books. Different paper qualities are used depending on the type of book: Machine finished coated papers, woodfree uncoated papers, coated fine papers and special fine papers are common paper grades.
Today, the majority of books are printed by offset lithography. When a book is printed the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages will be in the correct sequence. Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The sizes of books are usually specified as "trim size": the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and trimmed. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and have come to dominate the industry. British conventions in this regard prevail throughout the English-speaking world, except for the USA. The European book manufacturing industry works to a completely different set of standards.
Current processes
Book covers
Some books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. fewer copies) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print more copies in a shorter time. As the production line circulates, a complete "book" is collected together in one stack, next to another, and another.
A web press carries out the folding itself, delivering bundles of signatures (sections) ready to go into the gathering line. Notice that when the book is being printed it is being printed one (or two) signatures at a time, not one complete book at a time. Excess numbers are printed to make up for any spoilage due to "make-readies" or test pages to assure final print quality.
A make-ready is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper.
After the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the bindery. In the middle of last century there were still many trade binders - stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in binding alone. At that time, because of the dominance of letterpress printing, typesetting and printing took place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book's worth of type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so printing would be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be moved. Now, because of increasing computerization of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa).
If the book is a hardback its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a paperback.
Unsewn binding, is now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held together by "Smyth sewing" using needles, "McCain sewing", using drilled holes often used in schoolbook binding, or "notch binding", where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the spine of each signature. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks.
Finishing
Book pages
"Making cases" happens off-line and prior to the book's arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case-making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth (about 5/8" all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case-making the stack of cases will go to the foil stamping area for adding decorations and type.
Digital printing
Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using toner rather than ink. Each book is printed in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. One might think of a web press as printing quantities over 2000, quantities from 250 to 2000 being printed on sheet-fed presses, and digital presses doing quantities below 250. These numbers are of course only approximate and will vary from supplier to supplier, and from book to book depending on its characteristics. Digital printing has opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received from a customer.
E-book
Main article: e-book
The term e-book is a contraction of "electronic book"; it refers to a book-length publication in digital form.[20] An e-book is usually made available through the internet, but also on CD-ROM and other forms. E-Books may be read either via a computer or by means of a portable book display device known as an e-book reader, such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble Nook or the Amazon Kindle. These devices attempt to mimic the experience of reading a print book.
Information explosion
Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of electronic publishing and the internet means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a digital library, on CD-ROM, or in the form of e-books. An on-line book is an e-book that is available online through the internet.
Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing.[21] There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. This effort is spearheaded by Project Gutenberg combined with Distributed Proofreaders.
There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as POD or "print on demand", which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print.
Book design
Main article: Book design
Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components of a book into a coherent whole.
In the words of Jan Tschichold, book design "though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed over centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought back to life and applied." Richard Hendel describes book design as "an arcane subject" and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means.
Sizes
Main article: Book size
Real-size facsimile of Codex Gigas
The world's largest book
The size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame, so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed.
The most common book sizes are:
Quarto (4to): the sheet of paper is folded twice, forming four leaves (eight pages) approximately 11-13 inches (ca 30 cm) tall
Octavo (8vo): the most common size for current hardcover books. The sheet is folded three times into eight leaves (16 pages) up to 9 ¾" (ca 23 cm) tall.
DuoDecimo (12mo): a size between 8vo and 16mo, up to 7 ¾" (ca 18 cm) tall
Sextodecimo (16mo): the sheet is folded four times, forming 16 leaves (32 pages) up to 6 ¾" (ca 15 cm) tall
Sizes smaller than 16mo are:
24mo: up to 5 ¾" (ca 13 cm) tall.
32mo: up to 5" (ca 12 cm) tall.
48mo: up to 4" (ca 10 cm) tall.
64mo: up to 3" (ca 8 cm) tall.
Small books can be called booklets.
Sizes larger than quarto are:
Folio: up to 15" (ca 38 cm) tall.
Elephant Folio: up to 23" (ca 58 cm) tall.
Atlas Folio: up to 25" (ca 63 cm) tall.
Double Elephant Folio: up to 50" (ca 127 cm) tall.
The largest extant medieval manuscript in the world is Codex Gigas 92 × 50 × 22 cm. The world's largest book made of stone is in Kuthodaw Pagoda (Burma).
The longest book title in the world is 670 words long[citation needed].
Types
By content
Novels in a Polish bookstore
A common separation by content are fiction and non-fiction books. This simple separation can be found in most collections, libraries, and bookstores.
Fiction
Many of the books published today are fiction, meaning that they are in-part or completely untrue. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for entertainment. An increase in global literacy and print technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical social commentary. Most fiction is additionally categorized by genre.
The novel is the most common form of fiction book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot, setting, themes and characters. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing markets.[22] A novella is a term sometimes used for fiction prose typically between 17,500 and 40,000 words, and a novelette between 7,500 and 17,500. A Short story may be any length up to 10,000 words, but these word lengths vary.
Comic books or graphic novels are books in which the story is illustrated. The characters and narrators use speech or thought bubbles to express verbal language.
Non-fiction
A page from a dictionary
In a library, a reference book is a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. An almanac is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics. An encyclopedia is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing words, their etymology, meanings, and other information is called a dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas. A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a handbook. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an index, such as Engineering Index, or abstracts such as chemical abstracts and biological abstracts.
An atlas
Books with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement books.
Students typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for study purposes. Elementary school pupils often use workbooks, which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or homework. In US higher education, it is common for a student to take an exam using a blue book.
A page from a notebook used as hand written diary
There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These books are rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank papers to be written in by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use lab notebooks to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out.
A Telephone Directory, with business and residence listings.
Address books, phone books, and calendar/appointment books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal contact information.
Books for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called logbooks or simply logs. A similar book for writing the owner's daily private personal events, information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal.
Businesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping.
Other types
There are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. Albums are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of photographs, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example is stamp albums, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of postage stamps. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar smolder. Picture books are books for children with little text and pictures on every page.
Hymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other devoted followers or clergy.
By physical format
Hardcover books
Paperback books
Hardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of spiral-bound books include: teachers' manuals and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku).
Publishing is a process for producing pre-printed books, magazines, and newspapers for the reader/user to buy.
Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.
Libraries
Main article: Library
Celsus Library was built in 135 AD and could house around 12,000 scrolls.
Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) first appeared in classical Greece. In ancient world the maintaining of a library was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference from a modern public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Mediterranean region (for example, Library of Alexandria).[23] Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.
The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns.[24] The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built in their homes. In the United States the Boston Public Library 1852 Report of the Trustees established the justification for the public library as a tax-supported institution intended to extend educational opportunity and provide for general culture.[25]
The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.
In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made.
When rows of books are lined on a book holder, bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.
Identification and classification
During the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD).
ISBN with barcode
Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 0-9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit.
Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However, many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs.
A large or public collection requires a catalogue. Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside.
Institutional or national standards, such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software.
Books on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers visible on the spines
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. Another widely known system is the Library of Congress Classification system. Both systems are biased towards subjects which were well represented in US libraries when they were developed, and hence have problems handling new subjects, such as computing, or subjects relating to other cultures.[citation needed]
Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like online general-interest book databases.
Metadata about a book may include its ISBN or other classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author, editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, and the language of the text.
Classification systems
Bliss bibliographic classification (BC)
Chinese Library Classification (CLC)
Colon Classification
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
Harvard-Yenching Classification
Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries
Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
Uses
Aside from the primary purpose of reading them, books are also used for other ends:
A book can be an artistic artifact, a piece of art; this is sometimes known as an artists' book.
A book may be evaluated by a reader or professional writer to create a book review.
A book may be read by a group of people to use as a spark for social or academic discussion, as in a book club.
A book may be studied by students as the subject of a writing and analysis exercise in the form of a book report.
Books are sometimes used for their exterior appearance to decorate a room, such as a study.
Paper and conservation
Main articles: Paper#Paper stability and Conservation-restoration
Halfbound book with leather and marbled paper.
Paper was first made in China as early as 200 BC, and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp. papermaking in Europe began in the 11th century, although vellum was also common there as page material up until the beginning of 16th century, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market.
Paper made from wood pulp became popular in the early 20th century, because it was cheaper than linen or abaca cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations, and enabled the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution.
However pulp paper contained acid, that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections.
Stability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material.[26] Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The HVAC system should be up to date and functioning efficiently. Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore, care should be given to the collections by implementing light control. General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including pest control. In addition to these helpful solutions, a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through "acts of god" therefore an emergency management plan should be in place.
See also
Main article: Outline of books
Artist's book
Audiobook
Insomniac should made this for PS4 it looks better then Knack.
agree 100%
Indeed.
RelentlessVitality28
After the PS4 Remake was revealed, Insomniac Games said that they won't do any Remake of PS3 Title cuz they are made on the same engine that PS4 (Remake had just a little upgraded version).
All through, they said nothing about Remakes of _Ratchet and Clank 2 & 3_ , which were mentioned later on Twitter to be Remade (but it wasn't confirmed)
Knack 1 is trash but knack 2 is the best game on ps4
@@V_For_Vigilante i'm not so sure, but ok i guess
Really hoping they continue the story in the next game instead of something like All 4 One. My god man can you imagine how great a major Ratchet and Clank game on the PS4 would look like? Getting goose bumps just thinking about it
I hope they make it a huuuuge game if they decide to make a new series for the PS4. annnd I hope Nefarious is done with for now. He's a cool villian and all but used too much if you ask me
Well, it didnt get continued on the PS4, but Rift Apart has been confirmed to be a continuation.
Wow. The graphics are incredible. This should be a standard for any platformer.
The framerate is terrible and there is excessive bloom and other effects.
Still one of my fav R&C games. My only issue is how short it is, nothing else.
John Desper I had no framerate issues, dust out your ps3 or something.
You probably didn't notice it. It clearly doesn't consistently run at 30.
John Desper Well maybe I'm not a PC autist who cares about a few frames, but it seemed pretty consistent to me, with the exception of the few times a LOT of things were happening and exploding on screen simultaneously.
I want to buy all of the Ratchet and Clank games for PS2, PS3 and hopefully PS4.
Every game ive played as brought me many late nights of fun and sore blood shot eyes. So guys...whats your favorite? Mines is Going Commando.
Up your arsenal should be everyones favorite.
***** Oh that's a nice one.
Nefarious is a hilarious villain.
My favorite is Crack in Time. I think it had the best puzzles for Clank and I loved exploring all the mini worlds as Rachet. Also really good story in that. I do thoroughly enjoy Up your Arsenal too :) Funny thing is you can get every Rachet game excluding the spinoffs not made by Insomniac on the PS3 right now!!Gordon Freeman the Lombax of Space and Hedgehogs and THE TRUE HIGH KING OF SKYRIM AND PANDAS
Haha alrighty sir :)
my most favorite was up your arsenal, the worst one was size matter.
i haven't played all the ps3 R&C games as i only got quest for booty for free, but if i do i could call from the future series that crack in time was my most favorite and all 4 one is the worst, kinda surprised that into the nexus visually could match Knack graphics.
Ratchet & Clank: Nexus>Knack
my favourite ratchet and clank game so far, it managed to fuse the different elements that both the original trilogy and the future trilogy had, making every other game feel like it was only part of a puzzle, while nexus makes it feel like a complete and refreshing take on the series managing to do what the original trilogy did that the future saga removed, like over expanded levels, interesting mechanics and new takes on already existing ones, like the magboots as an example or the new not overwhelming at all clank sections, which took the tediousness of previous clank sections in the series, but maintaing the feel of a clank section.
the only gripe i have about the game is it's short length, which is fixed by the game's satisfying replayability value which doesn't make the game feel too tedious and long to 100%.
Ratchet and clank is one of those series that just never gets old. I really hope Insomniac doesn't stop making them. Would love to see a R&C ps4 game.
This aged well
@@PrintedPixels thanks for chiming in 8 years later 👍😐
@@DrCaptainSquirrel You got what you wanted and one extra 👀
Nice comment 😎 you play rift apart?
Were you satisfied with it?
They really should of had a PS4 version of this game too...would have got this day one on PS4
The Future Series Of rachet and clank is the best of all and this was a good send off and fun game. Also I highly recommend the ps4 version of rachet and clank.
Yes a crank in time is my favorite then this one just amaz😘😥😄
Honestly I liked Tools of Destruction more than a Crack In Time...at least with it's comedy anyway though both are pretty incredible.
I believe they are rebooting the series with the PS4 version of ratchet and clank
I wish they could get the rights to Spyro back :( other companies just ruined it
Funny reading this now. Who would have thought Activision would do great things with Spyro and Crash?
We need David back for the music.Even the little things like menu sound effects,box brraking,explosive boxes,swingshots,weapon selection,and weapon upgrading sound..."different".Not the good different.
Phantom0juice I never thought about this but it's kind of true.
Removing 1.8 points because of the ending -_-
if only this was a ps4 launch title, but then again this shows how much support Sony will give to current gen
Ratchet and Clank, Crash Bandicoot...man those were the days...make it on next gen..I miss these days so much
Crash Bandicoot N-sane trilogy, Ratchet and Clank remake... how far have we come...
@@uchihakaneki6928 None of them were new games, just remasters/remakes. Now you can finally say how far we've come with Crash Bandicoot 4 and the upcoming release of Ratchet and Clank Rift Apart which will be the first actual new full length Ratchet game since like A Crack in Time.
I have every Ratchet & Clank and Jak & Daxter game on platinum, I just have to buy this
Do you finish the game fast ? I just finished crank in time and that game was to shooort if you compare to the old ones, but still i loved all the games
The best ratchet and clank is ratchet and clank 3
dam casul i also aggree that ratchet and clank a crack in time was good one i started to play that game it was hard for me to stop cause i just wanted to keep on going i think i beat that game in like 4 days lol
Going Commando is the best. The scheme of colors (mostly blue and green) in it is far better than 3's orange, there is not "padding", there is "padding" in 3 with the missions from the Galactic Rangers, Going Commando has more minigames, Going Commando has better music. A Crack In Time has a story that does make sense in the franchise, bad music, "takes itself too seriously".
Mine is deadlocked
Going Commando better
@@johndesper9425 R&C definitely had the best music score out of all R&C games, but 2 each their own
Wow, I remember seeing this game being teased on Facebook. I totally forget that it came out o.O
+TypicalKHKfanboy what do you mean teased on facebook?
Probably just some FB page hinting at a new Ratchet game.
0:53 looks like one of the dark eco monster thingys.. from the jak and daxter series..
What is it with cliffhangers being bad endings? It only means there's more to come. So you say TOD and QBF gets minus points for cliffhangers? Get out of here.
Getting this game because I'm a big fan of the series
I was actually Unsatisfied with _Into the Nexus_
Yes, we had many things back [not like CiT didn't have them], but it was very, very Short.
I mean ~ comparing even to the PS2 R&C games, Nexus was very small.
I felt that this game was WAYYY too short. Maybe I just overplayed it ;)
thats what I'm saying LOL
that's the point.
@Ryan Luz it's actually just called Nexus in some territories.
I want a Jak and Daxter game by Naughty Dog...
Naughty Dog have recently stated that they currently only plan on creating narrative driven games, so sadly that doesn't look good for Jak and Daxter. Not to mention they tried to reboot the series before TLOU but they felt it strode to far away from what made J&D, well, Jak and Daxter.
Sadly this is will be the last Ratchet game, since Ted Price doesn't want to develop for the PS4.
Why not?
Lukesparow221 Not to sure, maybe he wants to try something different.
If he wants to miss out on a really good game that's his problem.
Sony will just get someone else to make the series.
For real?! :( At least is he working on Sunset Overdrive? Talent is talent.
WHERE'S CRASH BANDICOOT?
Its been so long :( Those games were fun.
Not even the same company..
I think Knack will replace it tbh
Activision happened
HES DEAD
at 0:50 to 0:55 that monster looks like Kor from The Jak and Daxter games
Now this is a game that I would buy
Well did you buy it
too bad its so short, oh well at least its cheap
'A Crack in Time' and 'Into the Nexus' are both on sale right now for £5 each and i always wanted to play these two (only played the HD trilogy), i guess it's time to start up my PS3 again
unfortunately 200PoundsOfBeauty , their right. its been over a month and the price have already been cut in half. it would have made more sense to make it a PS4 exclusive.
This game is called Ratchet and Clank: INTO the Nexus. Please, make the video title accurate.
But the Title from Europe is just Nexus. I know they should've made it Into the Nexus as they're Americans. :p
Someone doesn't understand language and regional differences in the publication of games...
It's funny because Ratchet and Clank: NEXUS was the name of a cancelled R&C Game. So yeah, this may be a bit misleading.
In Australia, and I'm guessing Europe it's just called :Nexus
Nexus on the disc and on the game menu.
Maybe it was either the Australian or European reviewers who did this, I have no idea.
DaxterMaster2 can you not tell the difference between an american accent and a Australian accent? this reviews from the IGN AU
THIS should've been launch game instead of Knack.
I'm excited to see them go back to the roots of the series after straying a bit, and glad to hear it'd good, thanks for the review!
This game will NEVER get old reminds me of when I was a kid having this and Jak on ps2... WHERE IS JAK AND DAXTER!!!
It got scrapped for The Last of Us.
This r&c game feels a lot more tense and hectic gameplaywise and not as casual as the others wich I feels is realy nice
I loved Up Your Arsenal and Tools of Destruction I though was the best one of the series, I never played Crack in Time though so does this take place after all that?
I would love to see the series return to the Solana Galaxy if not just to see Veldin one last time
They are
I like this game, but there was one point near the end where I stopped getting missions. Don't get how, some glitch maybe.
Ryu Nishiyama
those, crash and spyro, were fun games but the gameplay in the ratchet or jak games were superior.
but more people grew up with crash and spyro so a a lot want those back
So heres a question for all the fans of the series.
Haven't played RnC for a long time, gonna get back to it now that so many are on the PS3, thing is for now i've only got enough money for a single purchase, so
The original trilogy?
Tools of destruction?
A crack in time?
Into the nexus?
All 4 one?
Qforce?
Can't decide atm and don't know which ones the best to pick so
The original trilogy plus Ratchet deadlocked.
I know its designed to be short but I do wish it was longer, Nexus had some of the best weapons in the series
is the music in the background actually to this game?
It's the menu theme but remade 8-bit.
Yeah, it's the menu theme when you've completed the game
Ratchet & Clank is my all time child hood favourite on Playstation 2. Sadly it's not such a big hit anymore, due to games like Call Of Duty and Battlefield.
I've heard A4O was a big hit (TOD-ACIT were big too). The series must be big enough to have a movie in 2015 and an app coming to IOS and Andriod (Not confirmed when it will be released)..
i hope in the ps4 ratchet and clank the story will have unexpected crazy shit happening like in arkham asylum.
you cant compair RAC to Arkham!
lolidestroyallofu They're working on the movie
0:50 looks like the Medal head leader from Jak 2
Currently playing this for the first time now, just hope they continue ratchet and clank and ps4 and return it to 60fps?
Maybe even cell shaded again? Cause crack in time looked incredible!
I bought this game on launch day and was the first(maybe only) person to buy it from that particular gamestop. Unfortunately, I'm not going to play it just yet. I'm still playing the very first R&C on the PS3 collection since I missed out on the original PS2 trilogy.
Mr Zurkon family???? WOW!
Thumbs Up if you want multiplayer again! (Like in Up Your Aresnal)
Can someone tell me the order of the ratchet And clack series
Ratchet & Clank instant buy since 2002
I just didn't liked the not auto--lock when sooting... in the other games (in third person) when you soot you have a auto-lock when near an enemie. here you have to "switch" to a semi-first person and I never liked that :/
Short and sweet. I liked it. RYNO VII made it worth it by itself.
It should have been higher as there was only one negative..
I loved the original R&C's on the PS2. Have not played one since then so I might give this one a go. I hope some day there will be a Jax 4!
Someone please explain why Ryse son of rome isn't coming out for the PS4!!!!!
I bought this game on launch day and so far (because I haven't finished it yet) its been awesome.
I wish it had been longer though. 4-5 hours on Normal
This game looks so good and it's on sale for 19.99 at gamestop. It seems like a sweet deal if you ask me. But I never played any of the other Ratchet and Clank games, do I don't know if i'd like it, but it does look awesome. :)
Looks like Ratchet & Clank has gotten away from those last 2 terrible games it made! Looking forward to buying and playing this one!
OMG, looks amazing. A Ratchet and Clank PS4 title would be a day one game and console purchase for me!
Um, so, did is this NOT for PaS3?
PS3 is still getting great games. I love it.
Wish we could get current gen and PC fully released for this game😮
Hahaa, oh man, totally picking this up tomorrow! Can't wait!
last ratchet and clank game i played was gladiator, then from what little knowledge i have i heard that it went downhill. i really miss those playstation exclusives i played as a kid like ratchet and clank, kingdom hearts and others, now im just pc all the way
Resistance 4 on ps4, do you see its perfect!
This was quite an enjoyable plat to get, fun game.
Haven't touched this game since... I don't even know.. This is a childhood game of mine.
This game was fun, and I was just starting to get into it, but then the game ended /:
lol, same happened to me
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Whats the newest ratchet and clack and is this a sequel or wat???
one of the worst probles with the new youtube layout is that you cant watch and type your comment in at the same time
I already pre-ordered my copy. :D Long live the R&C series!!!
The new trilogy coming to PS4 is going to be so epic. I just wish they keep the ratchet and clank feel but also add in multiplayer as well look at R&C3 and R&C deadlock all their online were so much fun. Can't wait to see Ratchet and Clank on PS4 especially can't wait to see what they do with the touch pad on the PS4 controller.
So epic!
why idoes it only cost 27€ on amazon? is this a full-game/rip-off?
I loved this game immensly! though there were bad parts about it: the weapons turned friggin pure gold!, i did not like that at all. Beside that i could say the story could be longer if the nether boss grabbed neftin into the netherverse with him. That way you could see more vendra side and add a deeper story plot to it
I miss the developers who use to work on it during the ps2 games its like this game never changes now hopefully a gow4 or uncharted4 is announced
The game changes a lot, and gow and uncharted dosen't...
You must have missed the previous three games before this one, where there was a *lot* of changes.
Ripolt It's developed by Insomniac like the rest of them so i don't know what you're talking about.
Chowderhead666 I know that, he said it's like the games never change each entry and that's not true as Insomniac have played around with the formula for the last three games (All4One, Full Frontal Assault/Q-Force, Into The Nexus).
I meant to direct that comment at Mckenzie Boyd but i fucked it up my bad.
I call this Ratchet and Clank: Bioshock edition
This game couldn't of been released at a worse time along with Beyond two Souls as i'm saving my money for next gen like lots of other gamers out there
Im gonna buy this at the end of the week
I hope they bundle all the games together
Was that metal kor?
Yes this is a short game but a dang awesome one!
crack in time and 3 are far the best games i evr have played from ps2 to the ps3
Glad the arenas are back!
I expected of them getting 9/10 but I was wrong...
This was hands down my favorite Ratchet and Clank game. Yes, even better than Ratchet and Clank 3. I just can't help but gush by how much freedom of movement they provide to rain down destruction on enemies. If they expanded the scope and content of this game in a sequel, it would easily be a candidate for game of the year.
Going Commando is the best.
John Desper Says you.
Says anyone with "common sense".
John Desper Nope, most people would say R&C 3 is the best, just ask.
I know, they don't have "common sense".
WHY WON'T THEY MAKE ONE WITH A COMPETITIVE MULTIPLAYER LIKE UYA AND DEADLOCKED?!