Earthquackes and volcanoes

The Earth's lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere. Their interactions at convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries cause earthquakes and volcanic activity. Earthquakes generate seismic waves (P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves), measured by seismographs, with their magnitude quantified on the Richter and Moment Magnitude scales. Volcanoes are classified as shield, composite, or cinder cone, each with distinct eruption styles.
Earthquakes pose hazards like ground shaking, tsunamis, and landslides, leading to destruction and loss of life. Volcanic hazards include lava flows, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, and toxic gases, which can devastate environments and disrupt air travel. Predicting these events involves monitoring techniques like seismographs, GPS, and gas emissions, though accurate prediction remains challenging.
Historical events, such as the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, provide insights into their causes and impacts. Engineering advancements have led to earthquake-resistant structures using base isolators, shock absorbers, and flexible materials. Volcano monitoring systems use satellite imagery and sensors to provide early warnings.
The consequences of these events include displacement, economic losses, altered landscapes, and climate effects. Effective mitigation involves public education, urban planning, emergency drills, and resilient infrastructure to reduce risks and improve response strategies.