Assalamu Alaikum Nada, I have been watching your videos since A levels and am now studying in uni. They never failed to inspire me. Hope you are aware of the student protests in Bangladesh 🇧🇩. It would be beneficial if you could help raise awareness of the matter among your circle. May Allah free all people enslaved by authoritarian regimes. Thank you. 🍉
nada your just amazing keep making us laugh stay happy may Allah give a lot of success and blessings in your life Nada, your ability to make us laugh is truly amazing. Your positivity is inspiring, and I hope that you continue to find happiness and success. May Allah bless you with abundant success and blessings in your life. 🌟🌸😀😊🙂🙃
Hey I usually look at multiple recipes and cook it the way I want with ingredients i can access I guess 😭 But this recipe looks good x instagram.com/reel/Cw3A7K3uhSj/?igsh=emsyanVlYTE2MmVt
I’m not 100% sure if this helps, but if there is a slight chance writing a long comment would help raise money, I wanted to do what I could. Here is some super curricular research I did and found on phenotypic plasticity :) - my understanding of neo-Darwinism: the theory of Darwin’s natural selection overlayed with Mendel’s genetics. genetic mutations can result in production of different alleles which are sources of phenotypic variation Those phenotypes most suited to their environment = more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on alleles that code for that characteristic. Overtime that allele and the phenotypic characteristic it codes for will increase in frequency - What is left out of this, or reduced to negligible significance in evolutionary biology is the impacts of the environment on phenotypes. the goal ultimately is to create a more inclusive model for evolution- however, it is generally accepted the concepts of phenotypic plasticity among evolutionary biologists as a phenomenon etc. and is it even possible to develop such a model without it becoming like a shopping list? neo-darwinism and the model of evolution taught at school has its purpose- to provide a way of quantitatively tracking evolution and studying it. It by no means was tackling to declare itself as a comprehensive model- again models are simplifications - The goal: find a way of empirically measuring phenotypic plasticity so a larger evolutionary model from the 2 combined models. # Phenotypic Plasticity - the ability for organisms to change their characteristics in response to environment- aka. for a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes - it is important bc: model to understand life, can increase fitness, produce novelty, facilitate evolution, structures ecological communities … the list goes on
### The struggle - the environment imposes challenges unto phenotypes and organisms, which lowers fitness. the organisms counter these by - between generation variation: mostly genetic, resulting in adaptive changes in population on natural selection acting on heritable variation - within generation variation: almost always non genetic, which occurs individuals, is frequently adaptive and allows individuals to adjust to the environmental change # Characterising phenotypic plasticity - phenomena such as heat shock reaction, acclimitization, host-plant switching, enzyme induction, predator-induced defence, maternal effects, mate choice, hybridisation, dispersal, environmentally induced transcription and translation, general stress response = analysed under phenotypic plasticity - ontogony: the development or course of development of an individual organism - plasticity can take place in the form of ontogeny, environment induced gene/allele expression - phenotypic plasticity can be continuous graded responses: phenotypic modulation- contunuous linear or curvilinear reaction norms - phenotypic plasticity can also be discrete phenotypic change with no intermediate form: developmental conversions- discontinuous or sigmoid reaction norms - most fall in between phenotypic modulation and developmental conversion - however these can be wrongly identified as each other - continuous graded responses may cause developmental conversions via thershold mechanisms: if an environmental condition surpasses a threshold level vs not reaching a threshold level - examples of developmental conversions can be producing alternatives- e.g. social casts. or produce sequential developmental conversions- e.g. sequential sex change # Cues - phenotypic plasticity can be induced by either environmental stimuli or cues. - environmental stimuli disrupt homeostasis or development in non adaptive harmful ways- and are often harmful selective agents. produced plastic change after appearance of environmental change - cues are signals that predict environmental change- these induce plasticities that are highly adaptive. the plasticity produced is called anticipatory plasticity- induced plasticity change before the appearance of the change in environment - organisms evolve mechanisms to detect and respond to environmental stimuli. to best do so in harmful situations is usually to pre-empt the damage- and so evolving to environmental cues occurs- we expect over time organisms to evolve to be plastic in response to cues and undergo phenotypic change before the environment changes ## Specific vs General Plasticity - Environmental stimuli / cues can induce specific plastic responses or more general responses - e.g. temp influences nearly every aspect of phenotype and ecology - Learning = a form of general plasticity - growth and development rates = plastic to innumerable environmental factors ## Adaptive plasticity - Plasticity can be adaptive or non adaptive- bc environment can influence phenotypes in many ways, it could induce non adaptive phenotypes - plasticity occurs under conflicting selective pressures - plasticity can carry numerous costs / trade offs - but it is difficult to determine cost benefit ratios since a single environmental factor may idncue so many phenotypic changes, physiological and environmental consequences, that it will be impossible to study every single one - a phenotype’s benefits = specific to context- e.g. beneficial or detrimental depending on the context - e.g. plastic production of heavy armour or large spines in prey can be antipredator defense and beneficial, yet may also reduce feeding, migration, mating, fertility - phenotypic - the evolution of many adaptive plasticities- e.g. diapause, alternative morphologies, mating, sociality, may have been stimulated by detrimental plastic responses to harmful factors such as low temp or poor nutrition ## Active vs Passive Phenotypic Plasticity and Susceptabilities - - plasticity can either be active or passive - active: plasticity coordinated and regulated by organism- involves multiple regulatory genes and processes acting at different hierarchies to produce a complex coordinated change - passive: environment induces phenotypic change that is not regulated by organism - e.g. poor nutrition leading to small size - active and passive plasticity can act simultaneously on the same trait in the same individual # Period of responsiveness - phenotypic plasticity only occurs if phenotype = responsive to environment - Many species differ in terms of the time and duration of responsiveness to the environment - development is a key period of environmental responsiveness - if species do not receive appropriate environmental stimuli during the critical period, a certain phenotype may not be expressed- this could be detrimental or beneficial depending on context . changes in environmental stimuli during the responsive period could lead to changes in phenotype via phenotypic plasticity # Speed of Induction - the speed of plasticity can range fro immediacy to generation (e.g. behaviour, and transgenerational plasticity) - no matter the time scale, phenotypic plasticity should match environmental change - if there is too long of lag times before phenotypic change to match new environment, plasticity can be maladaptive - rapidly changing environments should select for rapid plastic responses- behavioural + physiological plasticity - slowly changing environments should select for graded or slowed plastic responses, which could be met by slower acting developmental plasticity- e.g. altered morphology or life history # Physiological Mechanisms underlying phenotypic plasticity - many mechanisms achieve phenotypic plasticity. In some cases we have detailed understanding of the mechanisms and biochemistry underlying plasticity - for pathogen-induced plasticity in vertebrates and plants (Frost 1999, Defranco 2007, Chapter 7), - beetle horns (Emlen et al. 2007, Chapter 3), - butterfly polyphenisms (Chapter 9), - body size and allometry (Emlen and Allen 2004, Shingleton et al. 2007, Chapters 10, 13), - wing polyphenisms (Chapter 14), - some acclimations (Chapter 16), stress proteins (Chapter 17), - and social castes (Page and Amdam 2007). - Adaptive coordinated active plasticity would involve cue recognition, stimulus transduction, complex effector systems (involving specialised r general sense organs etc.)- tactile stimulation of sensory hairs in locust legs triggers behavioural phase change in response to high density - a single genotype can produce multiple phenotypes via a combination of - transcription regulation - translation regulation - enzyme regulation - hormone regulation - morphogen regulation - morphogenesis - apoptosis - neural control - microarrays allow simultaneous monitoring of the expression of thousands of genes during phenotypic plasticity induction and expression- which coupled with knockout and other technologies will allow identification of specific genes and pathways responsible for adaptive plasticity - In insects - environmental factors can directly turn on or off genes - hormones themselves can induce differential gene expression and development - hormones lie at the base of virtually all insect development conversion - small evolutionary changes in thresholds or timing of hormone release or sensitivity periods of specific tissues can produce diff reaction norms in diff taxa - reaction norm evolution = often accomplished by altering timing of physiological mechanisms that control developmental switches - caste ratios = often determined by positive and negative feedback mechanisms controlled by pheromones / nutrition - A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavior of the receiving individuals ### Homeostasis - the maintenance of a stable equilibrium of conditions inside the body - physiological homeostasis = a type of phenotypic plasticity #
# Phenotypic Plasticity vs Canalization - Canalization: operation of internal factors during development, physiology, behaviour, that reduces influence of environmental stimuli in the production of a phenotypic outcome - environmental canalization: production of a single phenotype despire environmental variability - To canalize one trait often requires plasticity of another trait - particular traits can evolve to be plastic or canalized depending of relative advantages and trade offs in different habitats and contexts - a non adaptive passive response may actually be an adaptive plastic response to hold another trait constant- e.g. to e.g. lowered clutch size under poor nutrition may be a plastic response to maintain egg size, oocyte development rate, female survival # Why is Phenotypic Plasticity Important - environment is involved in determining phenotype and Eberhard argues that it produce more viable phenotypic variation than mutation, bc mutation = rare and usually delterious + often random, not responsive to environment - produces a better model - PP elevates importance of stress- it elevates the importance of stress in evolution and ecology - phenotypic plasticity to environmental stress may have stimulated the evolution of stress proteins, homeostaiss, acclimation, canalization, immune response, learning, - related to agency - PP can alter environments and structure communities by affecting the growth, survival, and reproduction of s species- which can affect abundance, dsitribution and its ecosystemic role. - PP can help us forecast establishment of invasive species, aid conservation, help us understand consequence of environmental disruption, and aid environmental monitroing - e.g. diff plants release different volatile blends in stress- monitoring local atmosphere can allow monitoring of stress - PP used in industry- exposing species to extreme environments to induce synthesis of novel bioactive substances - PP helps us understand variation in crop performance - PP potential in genetic enginerring: once we understand the regulatory genes and biochemical pathways underlying plasticity, we can manipulate crop plants and use genetic engineering to increase those beneficial responses or transfer beneficial plasticities to other species - same applies for fishery and animal farming # How does Phenotypic Plasticity Affect Evolution - Increases phenotypic variation amongst populations of species, and within communities, which natural selection acts upon - Usually environment is just seen as the filters of evolution- involved in selection. But phenotypic plasticity suggests it has a dual role: both in production of phenotypic variation and in selection - phenotypic plasticity may affect coevolution bc of moving target effects- may prevent sole dependency and competitive exclusion. reduce selection pressures in coevolution. yet at same time allows within generation adaptation to antagonistic species - Plasitci # Phenotypic Plasticity producing adaptive genetic change - PP protects hidden genetic diversity from elimination, allowing it to be exposed under specific conditions - genertic variation= essential to life that costly mechanisms have evolved to achieve it- e.g. recombination and sexual production - environmental disrupts physiological homeostasis and developing, inducing changes that result in phenotypic plasticity and production of new phenotypes - this involves gene expression. The environment, through inducing plastic phenotypic change, exposes cryptic genetic variation that otherwise would be repressed, hidden (not involved in producing phenotypes) to selection - If the phenotype produced by plasticity is beneficial and continually beneficial it may become constitutively expressed no matter the environment- in the process of genetic assimilation, which involves regulating gene expression and selecting for gene combinations that produce adaptive plasticities. This could be accomplished by selection altering the regulation of trait expression- e.g. lowering thresholds for the expression of this new phenotype to such an extent that it was expressed in all environments. In this way, phenotypic plasticity can become genetically fixed. - Plasticities to diet, disease, abiotic factors may have evolved this way - e.g. if the pressure of high temperatures persist, then a heat-resistant / heat-adapted phenotype that was produced by plasticity, may after many generations be produced even without heat shock pressure - In the second case, Waddington exposed fly eggs to ether to induce a novel phenotyopic abnormality, “bithorax,” in the adult. After 29 generations of selection, the flies produced the bithorax phenotype in the absence of ether, and this new phenotype was heritable. Because the bithorax condition (above) created a second pair of wings, it mimics macroevolution, and thus suggests that macroevolutionary jumps might occur via genetic assimilation. - But, in some Acacia species that have obligate ant bodyguards, the response to JA has evolved to such a low threshold, that individuals always produce EFN, in response to low, endogenous levels of JA. Hence, a plastic trait has been converted to a canalized trait via adjustments to the regulation of trait expression - GA in one trait might favor plasticity evolution in other traits, because as one trait becomes invariable to environmental conditions, it may increase conditional expression or selection pressure for plasticity in another - Phenocopies = environmentally induced phenotypes that resemble genetically determined ones. Exposing one species to extreme conditions can result in production of otherwise hidden phenocopies
- In general, phenotypic plasticity should be favoured when it produces higher fitness than a fixed strategy across all environments - Reaction norms should evolve given directional selection on heritable additional genetic variance for plasticity - Plasticity evolution can be reversed- and a flat RN (canalised or no plasticity) might evolve if it produced the highest fitness ## Environmental characteristics - phenotypic plasticity = a response to temporal or spatial environmental variation- high variation should favour the expression of a plastic phenotype and its evolution - Plasticity = more likely to evolve when cues = reliable and in response to selective agents that slowly harm individuals, than those that act instantly with no warning e.g. tornado - speed of the induction of a new phenotype via plasticity should correspond with speed of nevironmental change- e.g. if changes are permanent, plastic change should be permanent. transgenerational plasticity should evolve if parental environments predicts offspring environment. - when cues = unrealiable, plasticity will not be favoured and individuals should employ bet hedging strategies ## Genetic characteristics - An organisms evolutionary history and relationships prohibit certain plasticity in certain taxa- e.g. plants = limited in behavioural plasticity - plastic responses should change with ontogeny and decline with age, because the capability of developing and impending senescence decreases ability to change phenotype - Polygenic quantitative traits should be more plastic than single locus traits - some suggest heterozygosity inhibits plasticity since it buffers environmental efffects- but others see that if individuals cant exhibit a reaction norm but groups can, then reaction norm could feasibly evolve via group selection ## Gene x Environment factors - fitness benefits of plasticity differ in diff contexts- e.g. environment, trade offs, includisve fitness, ratio of lifetime to stress period, dispersal range vs hatch size, ecological feedbacks - the type of plasticity evolving should depend on the ratio between generation time and environment fluctuation time - e.g. if environmental rapidly switches when lifespan = much longer than environmental change, then rapid reversible physiolgical behavioural plasticity should evolve - slower environmental change should result in evolution of morphological and life history plasticities, including once per lifetime developmental conversion - longer cycle environmental fluctuations might select for transgenerational plasticity - correlation between habitat selection and trait plasticity should favour evolution of plasticity - some suggest traits strongly linked to fitness shpould have low plasticity, and a flat reaction norm might be highly adaptive. however some traits strongly linked to fitness- e.g. antipredator denfeses and seasonal adaptation = often highly plastic - plasticity evolution is favored by environmental variation, strong differential selection in alternative environments, cues that accurately signal environmental change, high fitness benefits and low costs to plasticity, and heritable genetic variance for plasticity (Berrigan and Scheiner 20 # Plasticity and mutation and genes - mutations lie at base of phenotypic plasticity - all trait expression = embedded in a particular genetic background - the ultimate origin of genetic variation is mutation. - phenotypic plasticity = consequence of mutational evolution - the mutations that produce specific plastic responses may remain hidden from phenotype until the environment exposes the trait that selection on that trait begins - mutations have little evolutionary impact until they are exposed in the phenotype (environments can expose them) - phenotypic plasticity does not require genetic variation- e.g. clones would exhibit same phenotypic plasticity in same environmental change - if there is no variation for a plastic trait, but there is variation in the rest of the organism, background genetic variation. the genetic response to the environment cant evolve, however the new phenotype could evolve to be more fit via genetic accommodation. the gene frequencies would change so that the organism evolves in such a way that the trait induced by phenotypic plasticity can become beneficial or not harmful, by either / both regulating the expression of the trait (e.g. increased or decreased environmental sensitivty), and the effects of the trait on the rest of the phenotype. As such, an initially detrimental and invariant plastic response could over evolutionary time become imbedded in a highly fit phenotype (e.g. lets say in high temp, a fly develops wings that are really small. over time, allele frequencies in that species might change so that whenever the temp increases and the wings become small, then the morphology of an the fly may change so its body is lighter in weight, allowing the fly to support its wings) - if genetic variation exists for both plastic and most other traits, then the reaction norm, background traits, and fitness could evolve to produce highly integrated and adaptive plasticity - In insects, evolution of plasticity is aided by their modularity and metamorphosis. For holometabolous insects in particular, future adult structures such as wings and legs derive from small clumps of cells (imaginal disks) that persist through immature development and are only activated via hormones during the pupal stage. Differences in timing of induction and in response of different imaginal disks allow independent expression and evolution of the resulting organs (Nijhout 2003a, Emlen et al. 2007
# Plasticity as a factor in evolution - some suggest plasticity shields traits from evolution: e.g a plastic behaviour like seasonal migration, microhabitat shift, solar basking, moderates body temperature and preempts selection for furn, melanin, thermal-adapted enzymes - others suggest plasticity stimulates evolutionary diversification by producing novelty and / or via genetic accomodation - phenotypic plasticity may act as a way of shielding genetic variation from elimination, only exposing it under extreme environmental conditions - Somar argue, e.g. price: that phenotypic plasticity either retards or accelerates evolutionary rates based on the relative fitness of the new phenotype - if the environmentally induced plastic phenotype has high fitness, there is little subsequent selection on the trait or genetic change. as long as the fitness is maintained, usually meaning that the environments are maintained constantly or in predictable cycles - if plastic change = highly detrimental, then genetic accomodation could occur to reduce the plastic response or compensate for the plastic response in other ways - if plasticity = moderately favourable, subsequent selection should produce genetic change that alters reaction norm and associated traits to bring the genome to an adaptive high level fitness - Phenotypic plasticity theory suggests environment induced changes can become absorbed into the genome via traditional mendelian processes. one example 1. environment induces changes to phenotype 2. phenotypic accomodation: individual accomodates change phenotype by altering other phenotypic traits e.g. behaviour, morphology, to increase survival and allow reproductionx 3. genetic accomodation: the recurrence of the environment induction, would mean this novel phenotype is tested repeatedly in the new environment among a vast assortment of genetic variants. over time, there will be natural selection for allele and gene combination that improve the regulation, form, side effects of the trait and its genetic background to increase survival and fitness of individuals expressing the new environmentally induced traits 1. genetic accomodation can shift the fitness value of the environmentally induced phenotype- moving from detrimental to beneficial 4. Baldwin effect. natural selection alters gene frequency and combinations in species, so that genetic combinations that produce detrimental plastic responses are eliminated, and those that produce beneficial plastic responses increase in frequency. Here there is stabilising selection on the shape of a reaction norm (the diff between this and genetic accomodation, is that genetic accomodation does not change the mean phenotype- baldwin effect changes the mean phenotype. ) 5. Genetic assimilation- if the new plasticity induced phenotype becomes fit for long periods of evolutionary time, and stays fit- then the gene gene combinations (allele frequency) so as to remove all environmental effect and threshold levels, such that the trait that was produced by phenotypic plasticity is constitutively expressed independent of any environmental condition 6. speciation- phenotypic plasticity and combinations of steps 2-5 produce differences that increase mating or restrict gene flow. continual natural selection, genetic drift and mutation of population may increase habitat, mating, and genetic divergence, leading to eventual speciation. AKA AN ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED PHENOTYPIC CHANGE SENDS A POPULATION DOWN A DIFFERENT EVOLUTIONARY PATHWAY, LEADING TO SPECIATION 7. THE PROCESS = MENDELIAN AND DARWINIAN BC IT RELIES ON PREEXISTING GENETIC VARIATION AND TRADITIONAL NATURAL SELECTION. ### Environment affecting genes by affecting mutation: stress and hypermutation and other environments affecting phenotypes - stress alter genes in individuals - The best examples are non-heritable, but adaptive mutations forming the mammalian immune response - stress and bacteria - increases mutation rates in bacteria, by induction of DNA mutases- to create more variation and raw product upon selection- with hopes that some bacteria would develop genetic mutation that allows them to survive the stress - These mutations are non directional and mostly harmful- but some are beneficial - some bacteria e.g. Escherichia coli can switch phenotypes from high to low mutation rates depending on environmental stress levels - this is known as hypermutation- and varies among strains and is thus under genetic control - intriguingly because stress alters phenotype, the new mutations = already embedded in a plastic response. - locusts - low density phenotype = sedentary - high density phenotype = gregarious and migrates 100s of kilometers to new environments - in gregarious morph, recombination increasing during meiosis- perhaps an adaptation to increase genetic variability before new dispernal into unknown environments - also have stress-induced transprosable elements - lowered immunity, which fosters mutation inducing viruses
### Niche construction and plasticity - altered environments induce phenotypic changes, and altered individuals may alter their environment in a continuous phenotypic plasticity- environment feedback loop - For example, nest construction in social insects may influence any number of phenotypic traits of nest builders, such as body size, development rate, caste, fecundity, time spent in defense vs. foraging, etc. (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990). Likewise, by constructing reefs, corals alter local wave force and turbulence, temperature, oxygen and light levels, and associated biota, including predators, pathogens, and prey, and conspecific densities ### Reciprocal phenotypic plasticity among interacting individuals - phenotypic change in one individual may induce a change in a second individual, which induces further change in the first in a continuous reciprocal, phenotypic plasticity loop - such interactions both intra and interspecific can be mutualistic, antagonistic, or commensal - Conspecific examples are seen in certain social wasps and ants in which physical aggression between individuals determines queen vs. non-queen developmental trajectories, including differences in morphology, pheromone release, fecundity, and life history - plants and insects body guards (Huxley and Cutler 1991, Whitman 1994, Chapter 7). For example, Piper cenocladum plants produce more food bodies when bodyguard ants are present, which induces increased residency, feeding, and guarding by attendant Pheidole bicornis ants, which, in turn, presumably induces more food body production - Such “plasticity coevolution” might have resulted in the phenomenal ploy-counter ploy interactions that we see among some antagonists (Chapter 7). Plasticity coevolution should be common among symbiotic species. ### Parental effects - parental effects can drive environmental effects generated by habitat or parent itself, exposing developing offpsring to diff environments, contributing to phenotypic plasticity - Females may adaptively vary size, quality, and diapause state of eggs (Fox and Czesak 2000, Chapters 11, 19), and allocate resources to offspring based on mate quality. Egg size may determine plastic capacity of larvae (McAlister 2007 - In Orthophagus dung beetles, fathers influence son’s mating strategy (Hunt and Summons 2000, Chapter 3). Large males help females to produce larger dung balls, which produce larger male offspring with horns. Only horned males fight for females; small males sneak copulations - Repeated cycles of habitatinduction or imprinting in successive generations allow habitat-specific genetic adaptation (Davis and Stamps 2004). - Females also bequeath offspring with specific detrimental (O’Neill et al. 1997, Boucias and Pendland 1998) or beneficial (Baumann 2005) microorganisms, such as mutualistic symbionts, which alter host phenotype in numerous ways, such as increasing fitness under cold conditions (Dunbar et al. 2007). Mothers may choose to pass or not pass endosymbionts, depending on local conditions (e.g., Stern and Foster 1996). Changes induced by symbiotic microorganisms may drive genetic divergence (Wade 2001, Flor et al. 2007, Riegler and O’Neill 2007).
Any way to get hold of some of your problem sheets as someone not currently studying at Uni? Asking as an incoming Year 13 student looking for more supercurriculars
I’ve made a video on what to look at for super curriculars I do think my problem sheets are too advanced for a year 13 student esp since you haven’t covered any of the year 13 content I’m also doing a workshop on uni applications and how to study on the 27th August you should sign up I’m gonna go through alot of this stuff www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/how-to-navigate-school-tickets-975162626667?aff=oddtdtcreator
Hey sis what laptop do you use for uni? In'sha'Allah ill be going this year and i want to make sure if im spending lots of money on a laptop its worth it😭. Thank u xx
I bought a MacBook Air 2020 Honestly you don’t need a MacBook, you can get something cheaper or second hand just make sure you do your research when it comes to the condition of your product
Do you have any extra advice for personal statement and interview nerves ? I loved your video and would love to know more about how it is being a muslim woman in the university, as well as graduate prospects and jobs outside the lab 😄😄
Hey I’ve made a playlist on my TH-cam channel about everything to do with uni applications and this video is great on Muslim experience th-cam.com/video/y8etwaVdBn8/w-d-xo.htmlsi=wUO5OP9UPsxVT6tf
All ad revenue from this video will be donated to Mansour Shouman’s fundraiser for Gaza please do watch and engage !!!❤🇵🇸
Assalamu Alaikum Nada, I have been watching your videos since A levels and am now studying in uni. They never failed to inspire me.
Hope you are aware of the student protests in Bangladesh 🇧🇩. It would be beneficial if you could help raise awareness of the matter among your circle. May Allah free all people enslaved by authoritarian regimes.
Thank you. 🍉
Of course I will do ❤️
these videos are just filmed from a while back
But thanks for the reminder it means a lot 🥺
Ameen إن شاء الله
nada your just amazing keep making us laugh stay happy may Allah give a lot of success and blessings in your life Nada, your ability to make us laugh is truly amazing. Your positivity is inspiring, and I hope that you continue to find happiness and success. May Allah bless you with abundant success and blessings in your life. 🌟🌸😀😊🙂🙃
Jazakillah that’s so kind ❤️🥹
Your videos give me the power to work hard in order to reach my dream 😍❤️
Girl u are doing good mush Allah
I love Oxford uni so much and I would really like to get into Oxford for masters later on after uni
Jilbabs>>>>>>>
what Birria taco recipe did you use?? been looking for a good one 😊
Hey I usually look at multiple recipes and cook it the way I want with ingredients i can access I guess 😭
But this recipe looks good x
instagram.com/reel/Cw3A7K3uhSj/?igsh=emsyanVlYTE2MmVt
Great job, liked commented let’s boost boost boost! 🍉
Thank you !!!
I’m not 100% sure if this helps, but if there is a slight chance writing a long comment would help raise money, I wanted to do what I could. Here is some super curricular research I did and found on phenotypic plasticity :)
- my understanding of neo-Darwinism: the theory of Darwin’s natural selection overlayed with Mendel’s genetics. genetic mutations can result in production of different alleles which are sources of phenotypic variation Those phenotypes most suited to their environment = more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on alleles that code for that characteristic. Overtime that allele and the phenotypic characteristic it codes for will increase in frequency
- What is left out of this, or reduced to negligible significance in evolutionary biology is the impacts of the environment on phenotypes. the goal ultimately is to create a more inclusive model for evolution- however, it is generally accepted the concepts of phenotypic plasticity among evolutionary biologists as a phenomenon etc. and is it even possible to develop such a model without it becoming like a shopping list? neo-darwinism and the model of evolution taught at school has its purpose- to provide a way of quantitatively tracking evolution and studying it. It by no means was tackling to declare itself as a comprehensive model- again models are simplifications
- The goal: find a way of empirically measuring phenotypic plasticity so a larger evolutionary model from the 2 combined models.
# Phenotypic Plasticity
- the ability for organisms to change their characteristics in response to environment- aka. for a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes
- it is important bc: model to understand life, can increase fitness, produce novelty, facilitate evolution, structures ecological communities … the list goes on
### The struggle
- the environment imposes challenges unto phenotypes and organisms, which lowers fitness. the organisms counter these by
- between generation variation: mostly genetic, resulting in adaptive changes in population on natural selection acting on heritable variation
- within generation variation: almost always non genetic, which occurs individuals, is frequently adaptive and allows individuals to adjust to the environmental change
# Characterising phenotypic plasticity
- phenomena such as heat shock reaction, acclimitization, host-plant switching, enzyme induction, predator-induced defence, maternal effects, mate choice, hybridisation, dispersal, environmentally induced transcription and translation, general stress response = analysed under phenotypic plasticity
- ontogony: the development or course of development of an individual organism
- plasticity can take place in the form of ontogeny, environment induced gene/allele expression
- phenotypic plasticity can be continuous graded responses: phenotypic modulation- contunuous linear or curvilinear reaction norms
- phenotypic plasticity can also be discrete phenotypic change with no intermediate form: developmental conversions- discontinuous or sigmoid reaction norms
- most fall in between phenotypic modulation and developmental conversion
- however these can be wrongly identified as each other
- continuous graded responses may cause developmental conversions via thershold mechanisms: if an environmental condition surpasses a threshold level vs not reaching a threshold level
- examples of developmental conversions can be producing alternatives- e.g. social casts. or produce sequential developmental conversions- e.g. sequential sex change
# Cues
- phenotypic plasticity can be induced by either environmental stimuli or cues.
- environmental stimuli disrupt homeostasis or development in non adaptive harmful ways- and are often harmful selective agents. produced plastic change after appearance of environmental change
- cues are signals that predict environmental change- these induce plasticities that are highly adaptive. the plasticity produced is called anticipatory plasticity- induced plasticity change before the appearance of the change in environment
- organisms evolve mechanisms to detect and respond to environmental stimuli. to best do so in harmful situations is usually to pre-empt the damage- and so evolving to environmental cues occurs- we expect over time organisms to evolve to be plastic in response to cues and undergo phenotypic change before the environment changes
## Specific vs General Plasticity
- Environmental stimuli / cues can induce specific plastic responses or more general responses - e.g. temp influences nearly every aspect of phenotype and ecology
- Learning = a form of general plasticity
- growth and development rates = plastic to innumerable environmental factors
## Adaptive plasticity
- Plasticity can be adaptive or non adaptive- bc environment can influence phenotypes in many ways, it could induce non adaptive phenotypes
- plasticity occurs under conflicting selective pressures
- plasticity can carry numerous costs / trade offs
- but it is difficult to determine cost benefit ratios since a single environmental factor may idncue so many phenotypic changes, physiological and environmental consequences, that it will be impossible to study every single one
- a phenotype’s benefits = specific to context- e.g. beneficial or detrimental depending on the context
- e.g. plastic production of heavy armour or large spines in prey can be antipredator defense and beneficial, yet may also reduce feeding, migration, mating, fertility
- phenotypic
- the evolution of many adaptive plasticities- e.g. diapause, alternative morphologies, mating, sociality, may have been stimulated by detrimental plastic responses to harmful factors such as low temp or poor nutrition
## Active vs Passive Phenotypic Plasticity and Susceptabilities
- - plasticity can either be active or passive
- active: plasticity coordinated and regulated by organism- involves multiple regulatory genes and processes acting at different hierarchies to produce a complex coordinated change
- passive: environment induces phenotypic change that is not regulated by organism
- e.g. poor nutrition leading to small size
- active and passive plasticity can act simultaneously on the same trait in the same individual
# Period of responsiveness
- phenotypic plasticity only occurs if phenotype = responsive to environment
- Many species differ in terms of the time and duration of responsiveness to the environment
- development is a key period of environmental responsiveness
- if species do not receive appropriate environmental stimuli during the critical period, a certain phenotype may not be expressed- this could be detrimental or beneficial depending on context . changes in environmental stimuli during the responsive period could lead to changes in phenotype via phenotypic plasticity
# Speed of Induction
- the speed of plasticity can range fro immediacy to generation (e.g. behaviour, and transgenerational plasticity)
- no matter the time scale, phenotypic plasticity should match environmental change
- if there is too long of lag times before phenotypic change to match new environment, plasticity can be maladaptive
- rapidly changing environments should select for rapid plastic responses- behavioural + physiological plasticity
- slowly changing environments should select for graded or slowed plastic responses, which could be met by slower acting developmental plasticity- e.g. altered morphology or life history
# Physiological Mechanisms underlying phenotypic plasticity
- many mechanisms achieve phenotypic plasticity. In some cases we have detailed understanding of the mechanisms and biochemistry underlying plasticity
- for pathogen-induced plasticity in vertebrates and plants (Frost 1999,
Defranco 2007, Chapter 7),
- beetle horns (Emlen et al. 2007, Chapter 3),
- butterfly polyphenisms (Chapter 9),
- body size and allometry (Emlen and
Allen 2004, Shingleton et al. 2007, Chapters 10, 13),
- wing polyphenisms
(Chapter 14),
- some acclimations (Chapter 16), stress proteins (Chapter 17),
- and social castes (Page and Amdam 2007).
- Adaptive coordinated active plasticity would involve cue recognition, stimulus transduction, complex effector systems (involving specialised r general sense organs etc.)- tactile stimulation of sensory hairs in locust legs triggers behavioural phase change in response to high density
- a single genotype can produce multiple phenotypes via a combination of
- transcription regulation
- translation regulation
- enzyme regulation
- hormone regulation
- morphogen regulation
- morphogenesis
- apoptosis
- neural control
- microarrays allow simultaneous monitoring of the expression of thousands of genes during phenotypic plasticity induction and expression- which coupled with knockout and other technologies will allow identification of specific genes and pathways responsible for adaptive plasticity
- In insects
- environmental factors can directly turn on or off genes
- hormones themselves can induce differential gene expression and development
- hormones lie at the base of virtually all insect development conversion
- small evolutionary changes in thresholds or timing of hormone release or sensitivity periods of specific tissues can produce diff reaction norms in diff taxa
- reaction norm evolution = often accomplished by altering timing of physiological mechanisms that control developmental switches
- caste ratios = often determined by positive and negative feedback mechanisms controlled by pheromones / nutrition
- A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavior of the receiving individuals
### Homeostasis
- the maintenance of a stable equilibrium of conditions inside the body
- physiological homeostasis = a type of phenotypic plasticity
#
# Phenotypic Plasticity vs Canalization
- Canalization: operation of internal factors during development, physiology, behaviour, that reduces influence of environmental stimuli in the production of a phenotypic outcome
- environmental canalization: production of a single phenotype despire environmental variability
- To canalize one trait often requires plasticity of another trait
- particular traits can evolve to be plastic or canalized depending of relative advantages and trade offs in different habitats and contexts
- a non adaptive passive response may actually be an adaptive plastic response to hold another trait constant- e.g. to e.g. lowered clutch size under poor nutrition may be a plastic response to maintain egg size, oocyte development rate, female survival
# Why is Phenotypic Plasticity Important
- environment is involved in determining phenotype and Eberhard argues that it produce more viable phenotypic variation than mutation, bc mutation = rare and usually delterious + often random, not responsive to environment
- produces a better model
- PP elevates importance of stress- it elevates the importance of stress in evolution and ecology
- phenotypic plasticity to environmental stress may have stimulated the evolution of stress proteins, homeostaiss, acclimation, canalization, immune response, learning,
- related to agency
- PP can alter environments and structure communities by affecting the growth, survival, and reproduction of s species- which can affect abundance, dsitribution and its ecosystemic role.
- PP can help us forecast establishment of invasive species, aid conservation, help us understand consequence of environmental disruption, and aid environmental monitroing
- e.g. diff plants release different volatile blends in stress- monitoring local atmosphere can allow monitoring of stress
- PP used in industry- exposing species to extreme environments to induce synthesis of novel bioactive substances
- PP helps us understand variation in crop performance
- PP potential in genetic enginerring: once we understand the regulatory genes and biochemical pathways underlying plasticity, we can manipulate crop plants and use genetic engineering to increase those beneficial responses or transfer beneficial plasticities to other species
- same applies for fishery and animal farming
# How does Phenotypic Plasticity Affect Evolution
- Increases phenotypic variation amongst populations of species, and within communities, which natural selection acts upon
- Usually environment is just seen as the filters of evolution- involved in selection. But phenotypic plasticity suggests it has a dual role: both in production of phenotypic variation and in selection
- phenotypic plasticity may affect coevolution bc of moving target effects- may prevent sole dependency and competitive exclusion. reduce selection pressures in coevolution. yet at same time allows within generation adaptation to antagonistic species
- Plasitci
# Phenotypic Plasticity producing adaptive genetic change
- PP protects hidden genetic diversity from elimination, allowing it to be exposed under specific conditions - genertic variation= essential to life that costly mechanisms have evolved to achieve it- e.g. recombination and sexual production
- environmental disrupts physiological homeostasis and developing, inducing changes that result in phenotypic plasticity and production of new phenotypes
- this involves gene expression. The environment, through inducing plastic phenotypic change, exposes cryptic genetic variation that otherwise would be repressed, hidden (not involved in producing phenotypes) to selection
- If the phenotype produced by plasticity is beneficial and continually beneficial it may become constitutively expressed no matter the environment- in the process of genetic assimilation, which involves regulating gene expression and selecting for gene combinations that produce adaptive plasticities. This could be accomplished by selection altering the regulation of trait expression- e.g. lowering thresholds for the expression of this new phenotype to such an extent that it was expressed in all environments. In this way, phenotypic plasticity can become genetically fixed.
- Plasticities to diet, disease, abiotic factors may have evolved this way
- e.g. if the pressure of high temperatures persist, then a heat-resistant / heat-adapted phenotype that was produced by plasticity, may after many generations be produced even without heat shock pressure
- In the second case, Waddington exposed fly eggs to ether to induce a novel phenotyopic abnormality, “bithorax,” in the adult. After 29 generations of selection, the flies produced the bithorax phenotype in the absence of ether, and this new phenotype was heritable. Because the bithorax condition (above) created a second pair of wings, it mimics macroevolution, and thus suggests that macroevolutionary jumps might occur via genetic assimilation.
- But, in some Acacia species that have obligate ant bodyguards, the response to JA has evolved to such a low threshold, that individuals always produce EFN, in response to low, endogenous levels of JA. Hence, a plastic trait has been converted to a canalized trait via adjustments to the regulation of trait expression
- GA in one trait might favor plasticity evolution in other traits, because as one trait becomes invariable to environmental conditions, it may increase conditional expression or selection pressure for plasticity in another
- Phenocopies = environmentally induced phenotypes that resemble genetically determined ones. Exposing one species to extreme conditions can result in production of otherwise hidden phenocopies
- In general, phenotypic plasticity should be favoured when it produces higher fitness than a fixed strategy across all environments
- Reaction norms should evolve given directional selection on heritable additional genetic variance for plasticity
- Plasticity evolution can be reversed- and a flat RN (canalised or no plasticity) might evolve if it produced the highest fitness
## Environmental characteristics
- phenotypic plasticity = a response to temporal or spatial environmental variation- high variation should favour the expression of a plastic phenotype and its evolution
- Plasticity = more likely to evolve when cues = reliable and in response to selective agents that slowly harm individuals, than those that act instantly with no warning e.g. tornado
- speed of the induction of a new phenotype via plasticity should correspond with speed of nevironmental change- e.g. if changes are permanent, plastic change should be permanent. transgenerational plasticity should evolve if parental environments predicts offspring environment.
- when cues = unrealiable, plasticity will not be favoured and individuals should employ bet hedging strategies
## Genetic characteristics
- An organisms evolutionary history and relationships prohibit certain plasticity in certain taxa- e.g. plants = limited in behavioural plasticity
- plastic responses should change with ontogeny and decline with age, because the capability of developing and impending senescence decreases ability to change phenotype
- Polygenic quantitative traits should be more plastic than single locus traits
- some suggest heterozygosity inhibits plasticity since it buffers environmental efffects- but others see that if individuals cant exhibit a reaction norm but groups can, then reaction norm could feasibly evolve via group selection
## Gene x Environment factors
- fitness benefits of plasticity differ in diff contexts- e.g. environment, trade offs, includisve fitness, ratio of lifetime to stress period, dispersal range vs hatch size, ecological feedbacks
- the type of plasticity evolving should depend on the ratio between generation time and environment fluctuation time
- e.g. if environmental rapidly switches when lifespan = much longer than environmental change, then rapid reversible physiolgical behavioural plasticity should evolve
- slower environmental change should result in evolution of morphological and life history plasticities, including once per lifetime developmental conversion
- longer cycle environmental fluctuations might select for transgenerational plasticity
- correlation between habitat selection and trait plasticity should favour evolution of plasticity
- some suggest traits strongly linked to fitness shpould have low plasticity, and a flat reaction norm might be highly adaptive. however some traits strongly linked to fitness- e.g. antipredator denfeses and seasonal adaptation = often highly plastic
- plasticity evolution is favored by environmental variation, strong
differential selection in alternative environments, cues that accurately
signal environmental change, high fitness benefits and low costs to
plasticity, and heritable genetic variance for plasticity (Berrigan and
Scheiner 20
# Plasticity and mutation and genes
- mutations lie at base of phenotypic plasticity
- all trait expression = embedded in a particular genetic background
- the ultimate origin of genetic variation is mutation.
- phenotypic plasticity = consequence of mutational evolution
- the mutations that produce specific plastic responses may remain hidden from phenotype until the environment exposes the trait that selection on that trait begins
- mutations have little evolutionary impact until they are exposed in the phenotype (environments can expose them)
- phenotypic plasticity does not require genetic variation- e.g. clones would exhibit same phenotypic plasticity in same environmental change
- if there is no variation for a plastic trait, but there is variation in the rest of the organism, background genetic variation. the genetic response to the environment cant evolve, however the new phenotype could evolve to be more fit via genetic accommodation. the gene frequencies would change so that the organism evolves in such a way that the trait induced by phenotypic plasticity can become beneficial or not harmful, by either / both regulating the expression of the trait (e.g. increased or decreased environmental sensitivty), and the effects of the trait on the rest of the phenotype. As such, an initially detrimental and invariant plastic response could over evolutionary time become imbedded in a highly fit phenotype (e.g. lets say in high temp, a fly develops wings that are really small. over time, allele frequencies in that species might change so that whenever the temp increases and the wings become small, then the morphology of an the fly may change so its body is lighter in weight, allowing the fly to support its wings)
- if genetic variation exists for both plastic and most other traits, then the reaction norm, background traits, and fitness could evolve to produce highly integrated and adaptive plasticity
- In insects, evolution of plasticity is aided by their modularity and
metamorphosis. For holometabolous insects in particular, future adult
structures such as wings and legs derive from small clumps of cells
(imaginal disks) that persist through immature development and are only
activated via hormones during the pupal stage. Differences in timing of
induction and in response of different imaginal disks allow independent
expression and evolution of the resulting organs (Nijhout 2003a, Emlen et al.
2007
# Plasticity as a factor in evolution
- some suggest plasticity shields traits from evolution: e.g a plastic behaviour like seasonal migration, microhabitat shift, solar basking, moderates body temperature and preempts selection for furn, melanin, thermal-adapted enzymes
- others suggest plasticity stimulates evolutionary diversification by producing novelty and / or via genetic accomodation
- phenotypic plasticity may act as a way of shielding genetic variation from elimination, only exposing it under extreme environmental conditions
- Somar argue, e.g. price: that phenotypic plasticity either retards or accelerates evolutionary rates based on the relative fitness of the new phenotype
- if the environmentally induced plastic phenotype has high fitness, there is little subsequent selection on the trait or genetic change. as long as the fitness is maintained, usually meaning that the environments are maintained constantly or in predictable cycles
- if plastic change = highly detrimental, then genetic accomodation could occur to reduce the plastic response or compensate for the plastic response in other ways
- if plasticity = moderately favourable, subsequent selection should produce genetic change that alters reaction norm and associated traits to bring the genome to an adaptive high level fitness
- Phenotypic plasticity theory suggests environment induced changes can become absorbed into the genome via traditional mendelian processes. one example
1. environment induces changes to phenotype
2. phenotypic accomodation: individual accomodates change phenotype by altering other phenotypic traits e.g. behaviour, morphology, to increase survival and allow reproductionx
3. genetic accomodation: the recurrence of the environment induction, would mean this novel phenotype is tested repeatedly in the new environment among a vast assortment of genetic variants. over time, there will be natural selection for allele and gene combination that improve the regulation, form, side effects of the trait and its genetic background to increase survival and fitness of individuals expressing the new environmentally induced traits
1. genetic accomodation can shift the fitness value of the environmentally induced phenotype- moving from detrimental to beneficial
4. Baldwin effect. natural selection alters gene frequency and combinations in species, so that genetic combinations that produce detrimental plastic responses are eliminated, and those that produce beneficial plastic responses increase in frequency. Here there is stabilising selection on the shape of a reaction norm (the diff between this and genetic accomodation, is that genetic accomodation does not change the mean phenotype- baldwin effect changes the mean phenotype. )
5. Genetic assimilation- if the new plasticity induced phenotype becomes fit for long periods of evolutionary time, and stays fit- then the gene gene combinations (allele frequency) so as to remove all environmental effect and threshold levels, such that the trait that was produced by phenotypic plasticity is constitutively expressed independent of any environmental condition
6. speciation- phenotypic plasticity and combinations of steps 2-5 produce differences that increase mating or restrict gene flow. continual natural selection, genetic drift and mutation of population may increase habitat, mating, and genetic divergence, leading to eventual speciation. AKA AN ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED PHENOTYPIC CHANGE SENDS A POPULATION DOWN A DIFFERENT EVOLUTIONARY PATHWAY, LEADING TO SPECIATION
7. THE PROCESS = MENDELIAN AND DARWINIAN BC IT RELIES ON PREEXISTING GENETIC VARIATION AND TRADITIONAL NATURAL SELECTION.
### Environment affecting genes by affecting mutation: stress and hypermutation and other environments affecting phenotypes
- stress alter genes in individuals
- The best examples are non-heritable, but adaptive mutations forming the mammalian immune response
- stress and bacteria
- increases mutation rates in bacteria, by induction of DNA mutases- to create more variation and raw product upon selection- with hopes that some bacteria would develop genetic mutation that allows them to survive the stress
- These mutations are non directional and mostly harmful- but some are beneficial
- some bacteria e.g. Escherichia coli can switch phenotypes from high to low mutation rates depending on environmental stress levels
- this is known as hypermutation- and varies among strains and is thus under genetic control
- intriguingly because stress alters phenotype, the new mutations = already embedded in a plastic response.
- locusts
- low density phenotype = sedentary
- high density phenotype = gregarious and migrates 100s of kilometers to new environments
- in gregarious morph, recombination increasing during meiosis- perhaps an adaptation to increase genetic variability before new dispernal into unknown environments
- also have stress-induced transprosable elements
- lowered immunity, which fosters mutation inducing viruses
### Niche construction and plasticity
- altered environments induce phenotypic changes, and altered individuals may alter their environment in a continuous phenotypic plasticity- environment feedback loop
- For example, nest construction in social insects may influence any number of phenotypic traits of nest builders, such as body size, development rate, caste, fecundity, time spent in defense vs.
foraging, etc. (Hölldobler and Wilson 1990). Likewise, by constructing reefs, corals alter local wave force and turbulence, temperature, oxygen and light levels, and associated biota, including predators, pathogens, and prey, and conspecific densities
### Reciprocal phenotypic plasticity among interacting individuals
- phenotypic change in one individual may induce a change in a second individual, which induces further change in the first in a continuous reciprocal, phenotypic plasticity loop
- such interactions both intra and interspecific can be mutualistic, antagonistic, or commensal
- Conspecific examples are seen in certain social wasps and ants in which physical aggression between individuals determines queen vs. non-queen developmental trajectories, including
differences in morphology, pheromone release, fecundity, and life history
- plants and insects body guards (Huxley and Cutler 1991, Whitman 1994, Chapter 7). For example, Piper cenocladum plants produce more food bodies when bodyguard ants are
present, which induces increased residency, feeding, and guarding by
attendant Pheidole bicornis ants, which, in turn, presumably induces more
food body production
- Such “plasticity coevolution” might have resulted in the phenomenal
ploy-counter ploy interactions that we see among some antagonists
(Chapter 7). Plasticity coevolution should be common among symbiotic
species.
### Parental effects
- parental effects can drive environmental effects generated by habitat or parent itself, exposing developing offpsring to diff environments, contributing to phenotypic plasticity
- Females may adaptively vary size, quality, and diapause
state of eggs (Fox and Czesak 2000, Chapters 11, 19), and allocate resources
to offspring based on mate quality. Egg size may determine plastic capacity of larvae (McAlister 2007
- In Orthophagus dung beetles, fathers influence son’s mating
strategy (Hunt and Summons 2000, Chapter 3). Large males help females to
produce larger dung balls, which produce larger male offspring with horns.
Only horned males fight for females; small males sneak copulations
- Repeated cycles of habitatinduction or imprinting in successive generations allow habitat-specific genetic adaptation (Davis and Stamps 2004).
- Females also bequeath offspring with specific detrimental (O’Neill et al.
1997, Boucias and Pendland 1998) or beneficial (Baumann 2005) microorganisms, such as mutualistic symbionts, which alter host phenotype in
numerous ways, such as increasing fitness under cold conditions (Dunbar
et al. 2007). Mothers may choose to pass or not pass endosymbionts, depending on local conditions (e.g., Stern and Foster 1996). Changes induced by
symbiotic microorganisms may drive genetic divergence (Wade 2001, Flor
et al. 2007, Riegler and O’Neill 2007).
Can you talk more about Oxford application and if I am in a general schools at Egypt should I take the A levels exams or should I take a ACT?!
Can you do the translation in Arabic language, especially in videos that talk about information about access to Oxford, please?
Any way to get hold of some of your problem sheets as someone not currently studying at Uni? Asking as an incoming Year 13 student looking for more supercurriculars
I’ve made a video on what to look at for super curriculars I do think my problem sheets are too advanced for a year 13 student esp since you haven’t covered any of the year 13 content
I’m also doing a workshop on uni applications and how to study on the 27th August you should sign up I’m gonna go through alot of this stuff
www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/how-to-navigate-school-tickets-975162626667?aff=oddtdtcreator
Hey sis what laptop do you use for uni? In'sha'Allah ill be going this year and i want to make sure if im spending lots of money on a laptop its worth it😭. Thank u xx
I bought a MacBook Air 2020
Honestly you don’t need a MacBook, you can get something cheaper or second hand just make sure you do your research when it comes to the condition of your product
@nada_omar I was thinking of getting this one aswell. Thank you sm sis I really appreciate it may Allah grant you succes ameen❤️🫶🏼🫶🏼
Do you have any extra advice for personal statement and interview nerves ? I loved your video and would love to know more about how it is being a muslim woman in the university, as well as graduate prospects and jobs outside the lab 😄😄
Hey I’ve made a playlist on my TH-cam channel about everything to do with uni applications and this video is great on Muslim experience
th-cam.com/video/y8etwaVdBn8/w-d-xo.htmlsi=wUO5OP9UPsxVT6tf
@@nada_omarI want to know about something else is it necessary to be at IGCSE or not ?!
I think I saw you at leaden hall market on tuesday you was with another girl.😭😭
I was definitely in Manchester on Tuesday sorry 😭😭