Computerphile and Numberphile are a blessing. I remember my math classes in college and we were taught different things about math but we were never told what they were used for. Now after seeing these videos I literally feel like I'd actually even enjoy learning maths. It makes sense because now I know why something is useful and when it may come in handy...
There is an issue with the animation at 11:02. Matrix multiplication is not commutative, the matrix has to be multiplied from the left ( the shown multiplication is not even doable)
If you interpret the vector as a 1 dimensional tensor instead of a 4x1 matrix, the tensor contraction is at least defined for when the matrix is on either side, but still it's not commutative - you'd get a different vector than you're supposed to.
Yep, this matrix multiplication is not possible as written in the animation (4,1)*(4,4) is not correct + it was the right way around on the paper: (4,4)*(4,1) gives a (4,1) vector. Hopefully this will be fixed and re-uploaded.
He taught the nitty gritty, your way of teaching and breaking things up to chunks is just wow. Thankyou Man, you just won my heart. Watching this is 2024 makes sense 😄🚀
Just a correction: the vector operand at 10:59 should be on the other side of the matrix. Matrix multiplication is undefined in the way you have it written because the sizes of the vector and the matrix don’t match.
Hey computerphile, thanks to all of the team for sharing the enthusiasm of Computer Science with me and other students, it's easy to find the lectures boring so I come here often to get more insights and intuitions. Being here enables me to learn things casually.
You're an excellent teacher, you took something very complicated and made it easy even for someone like myself who only has A level education in maths.
1:46 Drawing a 4 by 4 grid 101: 1. Draw a square (roughly) 2. Draw a vertical line through the middle. 3. Draw 2 more vertical lines through the middle of each half. 4. Draw a horizontal line through the middle. 5. Draw 2 more horizontal lines through the middle of each half.
There are vastly differing ways in which the keys are generated, but the purpose of the video is the algorithm utilizing a given 128bit key. I’m no expert upon the AES so I cannot explain exactly how the key is utilized, but I’m guessing that is what dictates the matrix chosen, the number of row swaps, things like that
I think the key seeds the generation of a series of round keys using a method he says he explained in another video, and the round key is just "added" to the block after each round. (And "add" in this field means XOR)
Thank you for making these videos. I have been watching them for years, finding the algorithms fascinating and the explanations very easy. As a second year cs student I must say that watching this channel realy helps me now more than ever. Keep up the awesome work!
I just talked a few hours ago with a colleague about how we could use this encription on an arduino to secure the data sent to a raspberry for a project (never used it before). And now you upload this... I need to use a mic detector in my classroom. Thanks for the explanation!
Dude! you're just a legend and so clear in your explanations! What I couldn't stop noticing is the scene you're filmed in. You sitting next to a white board is absolutely identical to watching The Office!
Damn I can listen to him for hours, I know what is AES I have used it many times for development but I have never looked into how it actually works. Hands down the best video.
10:00 I judge the paper as more than worth it. I really appreciate your videos. Often they provide me with the inspiration for my work even when it has no direct bearing on the task at hand. I was reminded of this when you referenced Turing, because I remember watching the one on Turing operations and it making it easier for me to develop a pickle-based data storage for my app that was significantly faster [in terms of read and write times] than an SQLAlchemy-based solution. I've used the same DB in my last 3 Android apps and every time I initialize that git submodule, I say a little thank-you to Alan Turing and Computerphile for giving me the courage to try something more ambitious than a command-line tool or Django-site. Baie dankie, from Southern Africa.
I implemented AES and RSA in C++. AES is about 800 lines. RSA is about 300 lines. The thing that makes AES fast is that its bitshifts and bitwise xors. The 2 things that make RSA slow is mod exponentiation and prime number testing. Prime number test is an O(1) problem as you only do it once. So if you have a key pair, don't throw it out of you can avoid it. The mod exponentiation has to be done repeatedly and on large numbers that aren't native to machine code, numbers that are can get up to 4kbits longs.
i spent around 5 minutes furiously scrolling through computerphile videos trying to find "how aes works" because it was in the end of the previous video, and i couldnt find it so was a bit puzzled. I found other encryption content, but not this video. Turns out this one is uploaded AFTER the last video recommending it 👍😁
If a video is 'coming soon' I'll generally put 'coming soon' next to its title in the video description (which nobody ever reads) (in the interests of clarity, I try then to update the video description (which nobody ever reads) once the forthcoming video goes live)- HTH :) Sean
@@Computerphile And the videos you produce are a breath of fresh air, and i hope to see more content from Dr Mike Pound. Really you should make videos with him atleast each month, i dont care what the topic is, its sheer joy watching content featuring him.
As mathematicians will have noticed, during the mix columns animation the vector goes on the right, it's correct on the paper. Fabulous animations though as always Sean ;)
FYI the CNSA has recommended organizations stop using AES-128 as of January 2016 in their Algorithm Suite and Quantum Computing FAQ. If possible you should implement AES-256 to better secure from Grover’s algo
This is shockingly close to a cypher I designed knowing nothing, except instead of an intelligently designed S-box I generated unique lookup tables for each round using Fisher-Yates on a secure PRNG seeded with the key. (And that was the only way the key was used, there was no key XOR step).
Just last week I gave a presentation on how AES works and now this video is coming out. Anyway, I liked the video and can confirm that what he was talking about is correct :)
When the plaintext block length is 128, the number of iteration rounds is 10. When the plaintext block length is 192, the number of iteration rounds is 12. When the plaintext packet length is 256, the number of iterations is 14
these videos are amazing and very helpful but please do consider to put subtitles as there are a lot of people who do watch them and are from other couintries. English subtitles would be amazing!!!thanks
8:29 The AES designers could also have done rotations within the 4x4 grid (e.g., b0 shifts to b1, b4 to b0, b3 to b7, etc.), which is just a 4x4 cell permutation, but they didn't.
AMD and INTEL have the AESNI instructions which are AESKEYGENASSIST,AESENC,AESENCLAST,AESDEC,AESDECLAST,AESIMC,PXOR and PCLMULQDQ and make use of the 128 data busses that are part of processors in the INTEL AND AMD ranges,therefore there are no side channel attack vectors, actually the AMD A10-7800k (Kavari) can make use of the AESNI instructions so can run bitlocker very quickly.
Hello, Just to say that the content guys put forth is so much helpful in many ways.. masters really!! Only thing is sometimes its difficult to understand what they say ... not quite familiar with the accent ... please kindly make captions/subtitles available... it will help us to understand better ... Thanks in advance
I prefer twofish. AES has many more troubling mathematical issues shall we say. Its not broken by any means, but twofish is far less far along the pipeline to becoming broken. I initially didn't want to detail what these were due to the time it'd take, but considering the only response was to say shut up instead of to do any research or anything, I decided to detail them in the responses bellow if anyone is interested. I also talk about other Ciphers used by other countries (as some countries like Japan have their own standards of cipher and rely on them over AES) and how these compare to AES.
@Fajitahmed/videos You lack a strong chin Achmed, might wanna sit out of this one. Evelyn, you don't make a lot of sense. You say AES is "broken" but cite nothing. Both Twofish and AES are impossibly secure, and while Twofish is arguably more secure it's also a lot slower. More rounds mean more time spent decrypting and encrypting, especially nowadays where AES is standardized on CPUs while Twofish is not.
It is very easy to attack software implementations of AES because the constants used in the tables aid to identify the software logic performing the transform operations. Hardware crypto engines can be attacked by watching bus, you have a horse to water or water to horse problem with your data and the key. Only trusted computing can somewhat reliably protect keys and data if you get the horse and water problem correct.
I was lost after plain text... but fascinating nonetheless. Kudos to all the commenters here with such amazing knowledge, such valuable minds you have. I will just stick to iOS calculator app for my math needs.
That's fine for an S-box where you expect non-linear elationship of bits. In fact you don't want some bytes to be mapped to themselves as that introduced a fixed point into the cipher construction.
@@SillyMakesVids True, but it did substitution... which was what I was referring too. Not saying this is a vulnerability of AES, but just curious why they didn't let same substitutions as the input
That's only for a part of AES's internal operation. With Enigma, a byte of the input couldn't give an identical byte as the output - which means you immediately know something about the plaintext for any ciphertext. That's not true for AES.
With enigma there was a one to one output. For each encryption one letter of the message got mapped to a specific letter of the output. That's how in combination with knowing a letter can't be itself they tore it apart
Could you please add another video about the Key Schedule process ? Because for every round we need to use a different subKey that is created during the Key Schedule process. This is important for a full picture of the algorithm.
19 วันที่ผ่านมา +1
After watching this video im asking myself can you better have not the grid but only one key or the other way around?
You should make a video about chacha20 and salsa20 encryption algorithms. They're modern, much faster and are not vulnerable to side-channel attacks like cache-timing attacks.
Hello. Can you explain the difference between AES and Twofish? I believe that Twofish was the runner up in the competition to select the standard encryption algorithm back in 1999 (I think)
I was wondering a few days ago about how BitLocker and the like are so quick to decrypt. It makes sense now knowing the security chip is capable of being so quick.
An improvement could to use 3D Matrix and use even the GPU + modern CPU AES Instructions to hardware accelerate the encryption and decryption, very interesting method
Me too. I think the best possible attack on encryption, if and when quantum computers are ever developed, would be that it will defeat all asymmetric cryptography (public key/private key) regardless if it's 2048, or 4096-bit. On the symmetric side AES 128 would be reduced to 2^64 (about 18 quintillion possible keys. That can be brute forced with today's technology. AES 192 would reduce to a 96-bit key (this would still be secure today and probably for some time to come). AES 256 would reduce to a 128 bit key which is secure now and _probably_ for the next 100 years. To give you an idea how secure AES 128 is, say a computer today could test 2^80 (equivalent to RSA-1024) keys per second, it would still take over 100,000 years to search just 1% of the key space of AES 128. So, a computer that could test 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 keys per second would take on average 4,462,756 years to crack one AES 128 bit key.
Computerphile and Numberphile are a blessing. I remember my math classes in college and we were taught different things about math but we were never told what they were used for. Now after seeing these videos I literally feel like I'd actually even enjoy learning maths. It makes sense because now I know why something is useful and when it may come in handy...
i dint know Numberphile , l did need some motivation to study math... thanks
It's because this is also Nottingham University
Before I watched this video I had no idea how AES worked. Now I've watched it and still have no idea how it works.
Same goes for me
AES works by mixing stuff up a lot.
@@cafeinst😂ikr, it's hard for u to figure if aes mixes it up or u just too cool to think clearly
😂
But that’s not because its not well explained, it’s just a topic that is difficult to understand
I knew what AES is for over 8 years but today I learned how it works
That's exactly the same for me :) :P
same.. lol. I felt like a bot using it for so long without knowing how it really works...
Same to you 😂
There is an issue with the animation at 11:02. Matrix multiplication is not commutative, the matrix has to be multiplied from the left ( the shown multiplication is not even doable)
Just came to write this
If you interpret the vector as a 1 dimensional tensor instead of a 4x1 matrix, the tensor contraction is at least defined for when the matrix is on either side, but still it's not commutative - you'd get a different vector than you're supposed to.
yes, A*B!=B*A
I was writing the same comment and then saw yours. Yeah!!! this mistake is confusing.....
Yep, this matrix multiplication is not possible as written in the animation (4,1)*(4,4) is not correct + it was the right way around on the paper:
(4,4)*(4,1) gives a (4,1) vector. Hopefully this will be fixed and re-uploaded.
I love his explanations but these videos give me the feeling that camera-man just randomly bursts in to Mikes office and asks him random questions.
which is prob what happened
in the first seconds of the video I thought it was a scene from The Office lol
@@firezdog Lol totally what happened with the preprinted diagrams and all.
LOL
how's that a bad thing?
Absolutely love the way Mr. Pound teaches. Can listen for hours together. Waiting for many more such interesting videos.
Dr Pound.
He taught the nitty gritty, your way of teaching and breaking things up to chunks is just wow. Thankyou Man, you just won my heart. Watching this is 2024 makes sense 😄🚀
Just a correction: the vector operand at 10:59 should be on the other side of the matrix. Matrix multiplication is undefined in the way you have it written because the sizes of the vector and the matrix don’t match.
Hey computerphile, thanks to all of the team for sharing the enthusiasm of Computer Science with me and other students, it's easy to find the lectures boring so I come here often to get more insights and intuitions. Being here enables me to learn things casually.
I just want to say this is a great description of Galois fields in practical use. I learned it from textbooks way back when, and it was mind boggling.
0:36
Encryption
2:34
XOR
2:55
Process.
3:20
Rounds of encryption.
7:40
Byte replacement.
8:33
Row shifting.
13:00
AES errors and CPU.
You're an excellent teacher, you took something very complicated and made it easy even for someone like myself who only has A level education in maths.
1:46 Drawing a 4 by 4 grid 101:
1. Draw a square (roughly)
2. Draw a vertical line through the middle.
3. Draw 2 more vertical lines through the middle of each half.
4. Draw a horizontal line through the middle.
5. Draw 2 more horizontal lines through the middle of each half.
6. Look at your grid and ask yourself how you screwed it up this bad.
itd be insane if he actually encrypted a message going to all of those steps
not much was talked about the generation and usage of the key
They have done other videos on key generation, presumably it just uses any of the other standards for that.
All these keys and I can never find my own 🤔
There are vastly differing ways in which the keys are generated, but the purpose of the video is the algorithm utilizing a given 128bit key. I’m no expert upon the AES so I cannot explain exactly how the key is utilized, but I’m guessing that is what dictates the matrix chosen, the number of row swaps, things like that
@@SirFancyPants21 the key only matters for the XOR functions, where you add the round key
I think the key seeds the generation of a series of round keys using a method he says he explained in another video, and the round key is just "added" to the block after each round. (And "add" in this field means XOR)
a lecture of 1.5 hours didn't understand it , just watched this video understood it in 14 min , TY you saved my semester .
Thank you for making these videos. I have been watching them for years, finding the algorithms fascinating and the explanations very easy. As a second year cs student I must say that watching this channel realy helps me now more than ever. Keep up the awesome work!
I literally just learned this yesterday in my cryptography class. Great refresher Dr. Pound!
I just talked a few hours ago with a colleague about how we could use this encription on an arduino to secure the data sent to a raspberry for a project (never used it before). And now you upload this... I need to use a mic detector in my classroom. Thanks for the explanation!
This is a blessing, couldnt be explained more clearly. Could we see an ElGamal cipher video please.
Love you guys.
"Captain, this vessel seems to be emitting a Galois Field. It has rendered our sensors completely inoperative."
"...our tensors..." surely? 🙈
Dude! you're just a legend and so clear in your explanations! What I couldn't stop noticing is the scene you're filmed in. You sitting next to a white board is absolutely identical to watching The Office!
Dr. Mike makes all the logics so charming and interesting. What a pleasure to listen to the logics through him!!
This man is one of the most interesting people I have ever had the pleasure of listening to. Kudos!
You can tell this stuff makes him very happy. I have no clue how this works after watching this, but I'm happy for him. 🤷🏾♀️
Yes, been excited for more AES since the last video! Always love when you discuss cryptography on this channel.
Damn I can listen to him for hours, I know what is AES I have used it many times for development but I have never looked into how it actually works. Hands down the best video.
Very well explained. Thank you so much for taking the time to record and post this!
10:00 I judge the paper as more than worth it. I really appreciate your videos. Often they provide me with the inspiration for my work even when it has no direct bearing on the task at hand. I was reminded of this when you referenced Turing, because I remember watching the one on Turing operations and it making it easier for me to develop a pickle-based data storage for my app that was significantly faster [in terms of read and write times] than an SQLAlchemy-based solution. I've used the same DB in my last 3 Android apps and every time I initialize that git submodule, I say a little thank-you to Alan Turing and Computerphile for giving me the courage to try something more ambitious than a command-line tool or Django-site. Baie dankie, from Southern Africa.
Thank you guys, your explanation is really helpful here, since it wasn't clear how all of this essentially works.
Was hoping this would come out
1.5M subscribers! Great job guys :D
I implemented AES and RSA in C++. AES is about 800 lines. RSA is about 300 lines. The thing that makes AES fast is that its bitshifts and bitwise xors. The 2 things that make RSA slow is mod exponentiation and prime number testing. Prime number test is an O(1) problem as you only do it once. So if you have a key pair, don't throw it out of you can avoid it. The mod exponentiation has to be done repeatedly and on large numbers that aren't native to machine code, numbers that are can get up to 4kbits longs.
i spent around 5 minutes furiously scrolling through computerphile videos trying to find "how aes works" because it was in the end of the previous video, and i couldnt find it so was a bit puzzled. I found other encryption content, but not this video. Turns out this one is uploaded AFTER the last video recommending it 👍😁
If a video is 'coming soon' I'll generally put 'coming soon' next to its title in the video description (which nobody ever reads) (in the interests of clarity, I try then to update the video description (which nobody ever reads) once the forthcoming video goes live)- HTH :) Sean
@@Computerphile And the videos you produce are a breath of fresh air, and i hope to see more content from Dr Mike Pound. Really you should make videos with him atleast each month, i dont care what the topic is, its sheer joy watching content featuring him.
As mathematicians will have noticed, during the mix columns animation the vector goes on the right, it's correct on the paper.
Fabulous animations though as always Sean ;)
The most secure feature when it comes to the AES standard is its matrix being column-major.
FYI the CNSA has recommended organizations stop using AES-128 as of January 2016 in their Algorithm Suite and Quantum Computing FAQ. If possible you should implement AES-256 to better secure from Grover’s algo
The interview part looks like The Office lol
OMG we just ended the semester and AES was covered in one of my modules! Wish i had this video a while back...Thanks for the upload though :)
Great video. I'm shocked that they still have music rule paper! Gives me nightmares of the IBM band printers I used to have to deal with on a S/38 :)
My professor Joan Daemen co-invented this cipher, really cool to be taught by one of the best!
This is the only channel on TH-cam which I have the notifications turned on.
Love computerphile 😍
Great job on explaining it guys! Thank you for making these for free!
Dr. Mike rocking! Best Man for teaching things with Humor!
I just want to know everything he knows ._.
This is shockingly close to a cypher I designed knowing nothing, except instead of an intelligently designed S-box I generated unique lookup tables for each round using Fisher-Yates on a secure PRNG seeded with the key. (And that was the only way the key was used, there was no key XOR step).
Just before my security exam, thanks!!
Just last week I gave a presentation on how AES works and now this video is coming out. Anyway, I liked the video and can confirm that what he was talking about is correct :)
this guy is a genius at so many different topics !
Best explanation I've found so far. Thank you.
How does this one guy know such a ridiculous amount about all this stuff, honestly really impressive
Woow
I was thinking of this TODAY and this vid comes out !
Plus its Mike Pound
When the plaintext block length is 128, the number of iteration rounds is 10. When the plaintext block length is 192, the number of iteration rounds is 12. When the plaintext packet length is 256, the number of iterations is 14
Idk y but this guy is fun to watch. Like ik some of these concepts and he just makes me understand them more
this video is a lot better than the last video I watched
this is amazing i always wanted to learn the mechanics about AES
these videos are amazing and very helpful but please do consider to put subtitles as there are a lot of people who do watch them and are from other couintries. English subtitles would be amazing!!!thanks
wow, funky, nice to learn how ASE works, and also love Dr Mike's presentation style.
G
8:29 The AES designers could also have done rotations within the 4x4 grid (e.g., b0 shifts to b1, b4 to b0, b3 to b7, etc.), which is just a 4x4 cell permutation, but they didn't.
A separate video on the MDS matrix, with full example, would be nice. Haven't seen a clear example yet.
Brilliant explanation. A very helpful video for beginners who wish to learn the AES algorithm.
AMD and INTEL have the AESNI instructions which are AESKEYGENASSIST,AESENC,AESENCLAST,AESDEC,AESDECLAST,AESIMC,PXOR and PCLMULQDQ and make use of the 128 data busses that are part of processors in the INTEL AND AMD ranges,therefore there are no side channel attack vectors, actually the AMD A10-7800k (Kavari) can make use of the AESNI instructions so can run bitlocker very quickly.
as a cyber security student... this was as informative as it was confusing lol
that is to say I learned a lot from this video but I am leaving with just as many new questions as I had coming in.
The guy is a Brit of the classical sense from another generation. Love it.
Wow, this is beautifully explained!
Absolutely great way to share, great job!
I've been waiting for this one!!
Thanks prof. Can you explain about the Authentication tag using in AES GCM? What is the different between GCM tag and authentication tag? Thank you
Hello,
Just to say that the content guys put forth is so much helpful in many ways.. masters really!!
Only thing is sometimes its difficult to understand what they say ... not quite familiar with the accent ...
please kindly make captions/subtitles available... it will help us to understand better ... Thanks in advance
I prefer twofish. AES has many more troubling mathematical issues shall we say. Its not broken by any means, but twofish is far less far along the pipeline to becoming broken.
I initially didn't want to detail what these were due to the time it'd take, but considering the only response was to say shut up instead of to do any research or anything, I decided to detail them in the responses bellow if anyone is interested. I also talk about other Ciphers used by other countries (as some countries like Japan have their own standards of cipher and rely on them over AES) and how these compare to AES.
@Fajitahmed/videos You lack a strong chin Achmed, might wanna sit out of this one.
Evelyn, you don't make a lot of sense. You say AES is "broken" but cite nothing. Both Twofish and AES are impossibly secure, and while Twofish is arguably more secure it's also a lot slower. More rounds mean more time spent decrypting and encrypting, especially nowadays where AES is standardized on CPUs while Twofish is not.
Thank you for this amazing video about AES...congrats
You are great sir the way of explanation is very nice thanks sir ☺️ for AES explanation
It is very easy to attack software implementations of AES because the constants used in the tables aid to identify the software logic performing the transform operations. Hardware crypto engines can be attacked by watching bus, you have a horse to water or water to horse problem with your data and the key. Only trusted computing can somewhat reliably protect keys and data if you get the horse and water problem correct.
I was lost after plain text... but fascinating nonetheless. Kudos to all the commenters here with such amazing knowledge, such valuable minds you have. I will just stick to iOS calculator app for my math needs.
Very interesting video! Thanks for the insights.
8:01 - No byte can become itself? Wasn't that the CRUX of how the enigma machine was defeated?
The Enigma machine didn't do permutation.
That's fine for an S-box where you expect non-linear elationship of bits. In fact you don't want some bytes to be mapped to themselves as that introduced a fixed point into the cipher construction.
@@SillyMakesVids
True, but it did substitution... which was what I was referring too. Not saying this is a vulnerability of AES, but just curious why they didn't let same substitutions as the input
That's only for a part of AES's internal operation. With Enigma, a byte of the input couldn't give an identical byte as the output - which means you immediately know something about the plaintext for any ciphertext. That's not true for AES.
With enigma there was a one to one output. For each encryption one letter of the message got mapped to a specific letter of the output.
That's how in combination with knowing a letter can't be itself they tore it apart
Keep doing these types of videos, I love them!
Could you please add another video about the Key Schedule process ? Because for every round we need to use a different subKey that is created during the Key Schedule process. This is important for a full picture of the algorithm.
After watching this video im asking myself can you better have not the grid but only one key or the other way around?
You should make a video about chacha20 and salsa20 encryption algorithms. They're modern, much faster and are not vulnerable to side-channel attacks like cache-timing attacks.
Hello. Can you explain the difference between AES and Twofish? I believe that Twofish was the runner up in the competition to select the standard encryption algorithm back in 1999 (I think)
I was wondering a few days ago about how BitLocker and the like are so quick to decrypt. It makes sense now knowing the security chip is capable of being so quick.
Awesome explanation! Thank you!
My professor invented this and is teaching me security right now :)
Hell yes! Two in a row!
An improvement could to use 3D Matrix and use even the GPU + modern CPU AES Instructions to hardware accelerate the encryption and decryption, very interesting method
Spiderman explains AES!
In the Galois Field, multiplication and inverse are not opposites, multiplication by n and multiplication by inverse of n are
Amazing. Very well explained. thank you for expanding my knowledge!
Just in time for my exam in a couple hours !!
Also great barnet
I wish you released this in April before my exams
8:30 Why is it called Shifting the Rows? As, it's a Row Rotation instead.
When Computerphile is more math-oriented than Sixty Symbols...
As long as it doesn't overtake Numberphile we're still in the green. :)
11:01 that's some incorrect linear alge🅱️ruh right there
I can't stop laughing at this
While the number field sieve is the best method currently known, there exists an intriguing possibility for a far more elegant approach...
You just compressed a 3 hour lecture into 15 minutes for me
Matrix Multiplication isn't commutative and the operation shown in the animation in undefined since it's 4x1 times 4x4 rather than 4x4 x 4x1
I like this explication but i always misunderstanding the concept, it will take time for me.thank so much.
Don't the shift rows and mix columns operations combine into mixing the diagonals?
I would love a video on quantum attacks on on cryptographic algorithms and quantum cryptography.
Me too.
I think the best possible attack on encryption, if and when quantum computers are ever developed, would be that it will defeat all asymmetric cryptography (public key/private key) regardless if it's 2048, or 4096-bit.
On the symmetric side AES 128 would be reduced to 2^64 (about 18 quintillion possible keys. That can be brute forced with today's technology. AES 192 would reduce to a 96-bit key (this would still be secure today and probably for some time to come). AES 256 would reduce to a 128 bit key which is secure now and _probably_ for the next 100 years.
To give you an idea how secure AES 128 is, say a computer today could test 2^80 (equivalent to RSA-1024) keys per second, it would still take over 100,000 years to search just 1% of the key space of AES 128.
So, a computer that could test 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 keys per second would take on average 4,462,756 years to crack one AES 128 bit key.
Biggest fan guys! Keep up the great work!!
Can you explain the iv? (Initialisation vector) and why having a unique iv helps?